Believe it or not - Playing the war game - The disturbing results of a recent war simulation

To: Yehuda

"...The first war immediately followed the proclamation of the State of Israel, May 14, 1948. Arab forces from Egypt, Transjordan, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon occupied the areas in southern and eastern Palestine not apportioned to the Jews..."

Yes, Yes and yes
# 56 by Phil V.
*************************

You failed to mention that the Arab forces stopped at the areas "not apportioned to the Jews" because the Israeli forces wouldn't let them go any farther.

The stated, well publicized goal of the Arab invasion was to "drive the Jews into the sea."

So, No, No, and no to your argument.

To: mikegi

"The Koran plainly states that the entire world is to be brought under Islam and ruled by Islamic law..."

"...As to the first problem, it is up to us to wake up and start screaming to our representatives that we will not absorb an attack with a WMD when such an attack can clearly be averted by closing our borders, checking every shipment of every package that enters our harbors, deporting all non-resident aliens of Islamic origin..."

"...As to the second problem, even though the enemy is a religion, it is a unique religion because it is a religion with a country and a city as it's capital..."

"...Therefore, a version of the MAD doctrine can be developed stating that if the United States is attacked with a WMD, then upon thirty days notice, the holy city of Medina will be destroyed with a small nuclear warhead such that no one will be able to inhabit Medina for hundreds of years. Should the United States be attacked a second time with a WMD, the city of Mecca will be destroyed on the same terms..."

*************************

What a horrible idea!!

Sounds good to me.
Let's do it.

Actually the Arab armies were stopped beyond the areas apportioned to the Jewish state. Consider these maps:

...

Map 1: Partition Plan by UN
Map 2: Armistice lines after 1948 war.

Isreael gained ground in the east and in the north after the war of 1948, areas which are now recognized as a part of Israel proper.

Preach it, brother!

. . . there are no "PALESTINIANS; they are squatters . . .

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Palestine, history of Palestine and the Palestinians (1948-67) The partition of Palestine and its aftermath
If one chief theme in the post-1948 pattern was embattled Israel (for greater detail on the history of Israel, see Israel, history of) and a second the unremitting hostility of its Arab neighbours, a third was the plight of the huge number of Arab refugees . The violent birth of Israel led to a major displacement of the Arab population. Many wealthy merchants and leading urban notables from Jaffa, Tel Aviv, Haifa, and Jerusalem, disproportionately Christian, fled to Lebanon, Egypt, and Jordan, while the middle class tended to move to all-Arab towns such as Nablus and Nazareth. The majority of peasants ended up in refugee camps. More than 350 Arab villages disappeared, and Arab life in the coastal cities (especially Jaffa and Haifa) virtually disintegrated. The centre of Palestinian life shifted to the Arab towns of the hilly eastern region later called the West Bank.
Like everything else in the Arab-Israeli conflict, population figures are hotly disputed. About 1,300,000 Arabs lived in Palestine before the war. Estimates of the number of Arabs displaced from their original homes, villages, and neighbourhoods during the period from December 1947 to January 1949 range from about 520,000 to about 1,000,000. Some 276,000 moved to the West Bank; by 1949 more than half the prewar Arab population of Palestine lived in the West Bank (from 400,000 in 1947 to more than 700,000). Between 160,000 and 190,000 fled to the Gaza Strip. More than 20 percent of Palestinian Arabs left Palestine altogether. About 100,000 of these went to Lebanon, 100,000 to Jordan, between 75,000 and 90,000 to Syria, 7,000 to 10,000 to Egypt, and 4,000 to Iraq.
The term "Palestinian"
Henceforth the term Palestinian will be used when referring to the Arabs of the former mandated Palestine, excluding Israel. Although the Arabs of Palestine had been creating and developing a Palestinian identity for about 200 years, the idea that Palestinians form a distinct people is relatively recent. The Arabs living in Palestine had never had a separate state. Until the establishment of Israel, the term Palestinian was used by Jews and foreigners to describe the inhabitants of Palestine, but it was rarely used by the Arabs themselves; mostly they saw themselves as part of the larger Arab or Muslim community. But after 1948 (and even more so after 1967) for Palestinians themselves the term came to signify not only a place of origin but, more importantly, a sense of a shared past and future. The Arabs of Palestine, and then of the West Bank and Gaza only, began widely using the term Palestinian to indicate the nationalist concept of a Palestinian people and, after 1967, of a Palestinian state.
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Exceptional analysis...

but I'll have to take you to task on one point: TR as the greatest of the 20th Century? ;^)

Exceptional analysis...

Indeed! Exceptionally frightening that TGORN is willing to "throw the baby out with the bath".

He who trades freedom for security deserves neither. For my country to follow the path of action recommended by TGORN is for my country to transmogrify into some grotesque caricature of itself, unrecognizable, unlovable and (ultimately) unfree to the vast majority.

You must understand the importance of Mecca in the Islamic religion to understand why MAD would work with the Moslems. One thing a Moslem must do to attain heaven is make a pilgrimage to Mecca and conduct certain religious rites there. If he cannot, then he must have this done by someone in his stead. Islam cannot exist without Mecca. It can exist without the Dome of the Rock, and without Medina, but not without Mecca. It is there the Holy Rock sent by the moon god Allah is preserved. It is there that the Moslems must march in circles around that rock for forgiveness of their transgressions and to honor Allah. To destroy the rock, and Mecca, is to destroy the religion. The destruction of Mecca for the Moslems is the equivalent of the Christians discovering the body of Jesus crucified and decayed. The only problem would be one of some third party antagonistic to the Moslems hitting the US in order to get the US to act on the MAD doctrine a second time to destroy Mecca. Without Islam, there is no telling what would hold the Islamic world together; what ideology would spring up to replace Islam. It could be one even more dangerous than what we face now. This is the only weak point I see in adopting the MAD doctrine once again to preserve the peace as we did in the cold war.

To: Teacher317; The Ghost of Richard Nixon
"...He who trades freedom for security deserves neither.
For my country to follow the path of action recommended by TGORN
is for my country to transmogrify into some grotesque caricature of itself,
unrecognizable, unlovable and (ultimately) unfree to the vast majority."
# 69 by Phil V.
*************************

The Patriot Act did just that; it took "a little" of our freedom
in order to provide safety for our people.
Don't bother saying "we are at war," that is plainly a lie.

A war has someone to be at war with.
A war doesn't worry about offending the same people
we're supposed to be at war with.

To: Yehuda

"...there are no "PALESTINIANS; they are squatters..."

"...The violent birth of Israel led to a major displacement of the Arab population..."

"...The centre of Palestinian life shifted to the Arab towns of the hilly eastern region later called the West Bank..."

"...Although the Arabs of Palestine had been creating and developing a Palestinian identity for about 200 years..."

Until the establishment of Israel, the term Palestinian was used by Jews and foreigners to describe the inhabitants of Palestine, but it was rarely used by the Arabs themselves; mostly they saw themselves as part of the larger Arab or Muslim community..."
# 67 by Phil V.
*************************

Jews are the only people who wanted Palestine. For hundreds of years, Jews prayed "next year in Jerusalem."

The only claim Islam has on Jerusalem is that it was Muhammad's first choice as his holy city. That claim was abandoned when Muhammad chose Mecca instead.

Until the Jews made the place prosperous, Arabs had no use for Palestine.

Until the Nazi war criminal Arafat claims as his uncle said so, Jerusalem itself meant nothing to the Arabs.

Keep pounding this point home to everyone that will listen, Exodus. I am tired of wearing a bullseye, being told that it is not only a possibility but an inevitability that the American people will be attacked with a weapon of mass destruction. 9/11 and what I have learned since--the number of perpertrators from Saudi Arabia, the number of schools throughout the Islamic world teaching fundamental Islam, the bizarre news coverage of their television, the purposeful killing of children by children whose families then accept payment from the Saudis, Iranians and Iraqis. I have no doubt who the enemy is, nor whether we are at total war. We just need to wake up the public who will in turn wake up the Congress.

Pre-Christian Era
Early Roman Era
Early Christian Communities in The Holy Land
Beginning of Formal Christian Era
Invention of Armenian Alphabet
Concept of ONE CHURCH Splintered
Muslim Arab Era
Crusader Period
Ayyubid Period
Memluk Period
Ottoman Period
End of Ottoman Rule
The British Are Coming
Legacy Of British Rule
Came the Partition
Some Closing Comments
Armenian Presence In The Holy Land
Pre-Christian Era
The historic connection between the Armenian people and the Holy Land (or
Palestine) goes back to the days of Assyria and Babylon before the advent of
Jesus Christ. At one time, Armenia and Palestine were part of the same empire.
According to recorded history, the Armenian King Tigran II (95 to 55 B.C.),
The Great "King of Kings," conquered most of the northern part of the fertile
crescent including Syria and for a short time, extended his political influence over
Palestine which at the time was ruled by the Jewish Hasmonean kings.
Early Roman Era
There is recorded evidence that during the Roman era ( 55 B.C. to A.D. 323)
Armenian traders, artisans, Legionaries and government administrators were
recruited by the Romans to settle in what they called Palestina. After the total
destruction of Jerusalem in A.D.70 by the Roman general Titus and the expulsion
of all Jews from the city and its surroundings, a small number of Armenians were
part of the remaining non-Jewish population living in the immediate vicinity of
Jerusalem which was in total ruins for more than a decade.
Early Christian Communities in The Holy Land
During its early years Christianity was essentially an underground movement
whose followers were persecuted by the suspicious Romans who believed that
the early Christians were members of another Jewish sect since Jesus himself and
most of the apostles, disciples and followers were of Jewish origin. By A.D.100
Christianity had spread throughout Asia Minor including Armenia where the
disciples Thaddeus and Bartholomew separately arrived and spread the words
of the Gospel among a small community of Jews, and converted some influential
members of the Armenian nobility as well. The early Christians in Armenia were
persecuted and martyred like their brothers and sisters in the Roman Empire.
Therefore, they sought support and guidance from like-minded people in Greek
cities such as Antioch, Ceasaria, Jerusalem and Alexandria. Although the original
Christians were primarily Jews, by the beginning of the second century
non-Jewish (gentile) Christians became a majority and dominated the hierarchy
of the church. This fact was exacerbated by the continued persecution by the
Roman emperors of non-Christian as well as Christian Jews who were not
permitted to reside inside the walls of Jerusalem.
Christians were not permitted to build their own places of worship inside the city.
Instead, they held clandestine meetings in existing buildings. One of these
buildings was the Upper Room, a house on Mount Sion located outside the city
walls, which they liked to call "Mother of the churches." They also owned a
throne which they believed belonged to St. James, the brother of Jesus,
considered being the "First Bishop of Jerusalem." The current St. James
Cathedral is named after him and it is believed that his head is housed in its main
sanctuary. Here, the Armenian presence cannot be disputed since the current
Armenian Quarter is acknowledged to include the site of the original Mount
Zion.
In A.D. 135, Emperor Hadrian crushed the last Jewish rebellion and
systematically wiped out the entire Jewish population of Jerusalem and its
surroundings. He proclaimed that Jews will no longer be permitted to live in
Jerusalem which again, was in total ruin. At the same time he renamed the city
"Aelia Capitolina," a name officially used by the Romans until A.D.326. By the
end of the third century very few people remembered the original name of the
city.
There is no clear documentary evidence that Armenians lived in Jerusalem and its
surroundings during the second and third centuries. The only viable testimony is
recorded by Christian historian Eusebius (260-339) who in A.D. 313 was
installed Bishop of Ceasaria. Eusebius, universally acknowledged as the father of
ecclesiastical history, writes about written contacts between Bishop Dyonesius of
Alexandria and Moushegh, Bishop of Armenia in 254. It is believed that this type
of communication could have only been done through the Armenians in
Jerusalem. Although there is no tangible historical evidence that Jerusalem was a
center of Christian pilgrimage in the second and third centuries, and few sites
were identified as holy sanctuaries, documents in the archives of the St. James
Monastery in Jerusalem speak of a Bishop Macarius of Jerusalem presiding over
the discovery of holy sites and the construction of edifices as mentioned in
communications with bishops in Armenia between 325 and 335.
It must be noted here that up to the beginning of the fifth century, there was no
denominational difference among the followers of Christ. The prominent
languages in the church were Greek, Syriac or Aramaic and the church hierarchy
was invested in the bishops of various cities without any regard to nationality or
ethnicity. Hence, the scant number of the Christian Church sanctuaries in the
Holy Places was used by all Christians. They shared the multiracial monastic
facilities, and in due time they founded a number of private monasteries and
churches throughout the Holy Land. In essence, as an underground organization
the Church was multinational, international and ecumenical.
Beginning of Formal Christian Era
Two important events at the beginning of the fourth century changed the nature
and dimension of the Christian world:
1) In 303, King Terdat III proclaimed Christianity as the only
official religion of Armenia with the help of St. Gregory the
Illuminator.
2) Constantine I, Emperor of the Roman empire, proclaimed
Christianity in his Edict of Milan in 323, as one of the accepted
religions of his empire, which made it as one of the official religions
along with paganism.
The primary benefit derived from these two events was that Christians were no
longer persecuted and marginalized. They were able to move about freely,
perform religious services and practice their religion without fear of persecution.
For the next hundred years Christians lived side by side in harmony.
The process for the discovery and construction of Holy sites began in earnest
with the visit of dowager empress Helena, mother of Constantine. Armenians
were active in this process. Now that Christianity was an accepted religion
Christians began to work in the open without fear of persecution. The sites of
Golgotha, the Nativity of Christ in Bethlehem, St. Mary's birthplace, what is now
known as The Holy Sepulcher and other important sanctuaries of today were
discovered through the efforts of Queen Helena assisted by Armenian religious
leaders..
The fourth century also saw the beginning of the great monastic age in which
Armenians have had a crucial historical role. One of the earliest founders of
monasticism in the Holy Land was Bishop Euthymius (377-473) of Melitene
(Malatia). He is internationally recognized as one of the major pioneers of
monasticism. He is also credited for establishing at least fifteen monasteries in
locations between Masada in the south and Bethlehem in the north. He was
regarded by his contemporaries as the second Adam. His exemplary life was
thought to have launched a new era for humanity. As a talented organizer and
reformer he set the pattern for future monastic endeavors by all nations. He
authored regulations and a comprehensive code of living patterns and conduct
for all aspects of monastic life which became the model for future monastic
periods. Soon, monasticism became the "fad"of the time. Latins. Ethiopians,
Persians, Georgians, and others flocked to the Judean monasteries thus giving
the movement an international flavor and character.
Archives in the St. James convent indicate that many other illustrious Armenian
monks followed, contributing to the development of the canons, liturgy and
customs of the Armenian Church. It is believed that between the fourth and
eighth centuries Armenians had established more than seventy monasteries
throughout the Holy Land. The monks or hermits who flocked into the mountains
surrounding Jerusalem as well as the Sinai desert were highly motivated
individuals whose primary goal was to work in the service of God under
primitive and austere living conditions. In their monasteries the monks planted
their own gardens and fruit trees contributing to the blooming of the area in
general. Monasteries were populated by a minimum of two and a maximum of
400 monks. Each monastery undertook a project or projects ranging from
handwriting books, copying manuscripts, creating colorful illustrations, preparing
liturgical procedures and hymns as well as formulating church dogma. Some
undertook the manufacture of goods. Rope-making was a favorite trade. Some
were the predecessors of our modern day think-tanks where they prepared the
guidelines for religious laws, church services, hymns and theological positions
which affected all Christendom.
Invention of Armenian Alphabet
The above described endeavors could not have been realized without the most
important event that took place in Armenia and changed the destiny of the
Armenian people: the invention of the Armenian alphabet and grammar in
A.D.405 by St. Mesrob Mashtotz, encouraged by Catholicos St. Sahag
Bahlavouni. The first undertaking following this miraculous event was the
translation from the original Greek and Aramaic, of the Old and New testaments
of the Bible which they named "Asdvadzashoonch," meaning, The Breath of
God. Church scholars translated a large number of Christian writings into
Armenian and historians were able to document national and international events
in Armenian. The development of the Armenian alphabet provided an impetus
for the establishment of monasteries not only in Armenia proper but throughout
the Holy Land where, between the fifth and eighth centuries, thousands of
Armenians made their pilgrimage to pursue scholarly endeavors: writing
theological works and developing what is currently known as the Armenian
Lectionary which consists of sacred liturgical services, the calendar of church
holidays, the dates for the commemoration of saints and an inventory of
appropriate hymns. It must be pointed out that Jerusalem played a major role not
only in the formation and evolution of the Armenian church liturgy and rites in
Jerusalem, but it exercised great influence in the crystallization of Christian rituals
into fixed forms throughout the Armenian world. The uniqueness of Jerusalem is
vested in the fact that to this day it adheres faithfully to the exact letter of the
forms, customs and traditions established by the scholarly monks and church
leaders of the earlier Christian era.
At present, the Armenian Patriarchate maintains more than 4000 manuscripts
and colorful illustrations carefully stored and catalogued in an underground vault
in St Toros Church adjacent to the St. James Cathedral. They are vivid and
irrefutable testimony of the legacy passed on over the past fifteen hundred years
by the dedicated and hardworking monks.
What is remarkable about the influence of monasticism in the Holy Land is that
many facets of Armenian church liturgy practiced today originated in Jerusalem.
The liturgical calendar is a remarkable document in that it provides guidelines and
procedures for church services for every day of the year. This pocket-sized
document continues to be published by the Patriarchate annually. In essence, it is
a compact encyclopedia and a compendium of relevant religious events,
chronological facts and organizational data. It also provides a schedule for the
commemoration of Saints in the Latin church as well as information on the
Islamic calendar.
Mosaic floors excavated during the second half of the nineteenth century in and
around Jerusalem provide indisputable evidence of the existence of a great
number of Armenian establishments believed to be constructed in the fifth and
sixth centuries. Most of the finds were mainly on Mount of Olives on the grounds
of the current Russian Convent. These archeological finds consist of six mosaic
floors of different sizes accidentally uncovered from under the rubble while
digging for the foundation of the Russian monastery. All six have inscriptions in
Armenian letters.
In 1895, another mosaic floor bearing Armenian inscriptions, was uncovered in
the Moslem Musrara Quarter about 200 meters from Damascus Gate. This
intact floor made up of forty medallions each depicting a bird and arranged in
rows of five, measures about ten by twenty feet. This writer visited this site in the
summer of 1992. An inscription in Armenian letters reads: For the memory and
salvation of all the Armenians whose names the Lord knows. It is believed to be
the funerary chapel of St. Poleucte, an officer of the twelfth Roman legion, who
along many of his soldiers lies buried under the floor. The room in which this
floor is located was purchased by the Patriarchate in 1912. It is the only
significant mosaic floor owned by the St. James Brotherhood. The remainder of
the building including the second floor is still owned by one of two original
Moslem families assigned as the doorkeepers of the Holy Sepulcher.
As recently as in 1992, while the Israeli Government was excavating a hill
outside the old city of Jerusalem for the construction of a major boulevard,
workers came upon a mosaic floor containing an inscription in Armenian letters.
After much debate and litigation, it was agreed that the floor is the property of
the Armenian Patriarchate, and in order not to disturb the relatively large floor it
should remain in place for the time being. Today, it is preserved in place in a
cement chamber under the boulevard.
Concept of ONE CHURCH splintered
During the first half of the fifth century we see the birth of sectarianism in the One
And Only Church. It was caused by Christological pronouncements on the part
of certain bishops. Prominent among these was Nestorius, Patriarch of
Constantinople, who believed in the separate and distinct character of Christ's
divine and human natures. In A.D.431, the Third Ecumenical Council was
convened at Ephesus. Although the council condemned Nestor and his followers
as heretics (called Nestorians), the debate over this controversy continued for
twenty years, while the Christian Church was divided into two camps for the first
time in its short history. The Armenian church leadership in Etchmiadzin, being
under Persian domination, did not send representatives to Ephesus., thus was not
informed of the decisions made. Following Ephesus, the banished Nestorians
were welcomed by the Persian rulers as enemies of Byzantium , and by
implication the Armenian Church was erroneously considered Nestorian since
they were under Persian control.
Since at the time, Armenia was partitioned between the Persians who occupied
the eastern two-third of the country and the Byzantium emperors who occupied
the western one-third , the Armenian Church was generally left alone in its
conduct of its religious and cultural affairs, holding its own church councils. After
A.D.439, with the ascension of King Hazgerd II to the Persian throne, the
relatively peaceful situation in Armenia changed dramatically. Hazgerd and his
court wanted to assimilate the Armenians by imposing Zoroastrianism on all
non-Persian people within his empire . His despotic treatment of the Armenians
culminated in the Battle of Avarair in A.D.451followed by the protracted
Vartanank rebellion and guerilla warfare which lasted until 484 when the
Persians were finally defeated.
The final blow to the unity of the Christian world was struck at the Council of
Calcedon in A.D.451, while at the same time Armenians were deeply involved in
resisting Persian persecution which in May of that year culminated in the Battle of
Avarair. Again, the Armenian Church was not represented at the council, and for
many years information about its decisions trickled into Armenia while the
country was immersed in the Vartanank wars.
The final splintering of the Christian World was the direct result of certain
Christological decisions made at the Council of Calcedon, which created a
serious theological and ecumenical breach among the Christian leadership
practically dividing them into two opposing camps. The primary point of
contention between those attending the council had to do with the nature of
Christ while revisiting Nestorianism. The majority faction (consisting of the
Bishop of Rome, the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople and other Byzantine
bishops) decreed that Christ's two natures were not separate as Nestorius
claimed in Ephesus, but that they were united without confusion, change or
division. Hence the term Dyophysite. The minority faction consisting of the
Eastern churches ( the Coptic, Syrian, Ethiopian and others, led by the Patriarch
of Alexandria, Egypt), contended that Christ had only one nature, partly divine,
partly human. They were known as Monophysites. Thus, the splintering of the
Christian Church had begun in earnest. For many years thereafter religious
leaders, realizing the seriousness of the chasm, attempted to find ways to
reconcile the dissenting groups. Several councils were held and edicts issued to
modify as well as clarify the previous wording. They were not successful.
Over the next thirty years the decisions of Calcedon and its variations gradually
arrived in Armenia in a variety of versions. Finally, when the Persian threat had
subsided, the Armenian bishops convened in Vagharshabat in A.D.491. They
rejected the decisions at Calcedon. At a subsequent convocation in A.D.506,
they also rejected the Monophysite label placed upon them by the Roman and
Greek churches. Essentially, the Armenian church is not Monophysite; but,
according to church experts it comes close to it. The Armenian Church has
followed its own unique interpretation regarding the nature of Christ. It views the
two natures as one and indivisible. It believes in the divinity of Christ and by
recognizing the humanity it does not emphasize it.
The wide breach created by the Council of Calcedon at first did not seriously
affect the religious harmony among the homogeneous Christian communities in
the Holy Land and Jerusalem. For about a century thereafter, all Christians
remained under the spiritual authority of one patriarch regardless of his ethnic
origin. They maintained the Holy Places and worshiped in common with harmony
while the Greek Patriarchs in Constantinople were exerting their authority upon
other churches in Asia Minor, and the Patriarch of Rome claimed supremacy
over all Christians since the emperors ruled from Rome. There was much
quibbling and strife among the "Faithful".
The harmonious relationship among the Christians in Jerusalem ended with the
reign of Emperor Justinian I (527-565 ), an avowed dyophysite, who proclaimed
that all Christians residing in the Roman empire must become dyophysites and
began persecuting all those who did not comply. Many monophysite clergy
abandoned their monasteries in Jerusalem and sought refuge in other inaccessible
regions of the Holy Land and in neighboring countries. Those capable of
remaining in the Holy Land established their own distinct episcopal hierarchy
independent of the Calcedonian Greek Patriarch. With the encouragement of the
Catholicoi in Etchmiadzin, the Armenians in Jerusalem installed their own
independent bishopric and established a hierarchy having authority over the
Eastern monophysite communities (Jacobites, Syrian, Coptic and Abyssinian), a
practice essentially in effect in Jerusalem to this day. On the other hand, the
Greek Patriarch exercised his authority over the dyophysites, all Christians in the
Roman empire regardless of nationality or language. There was no Latin
patriarch in Jerusalem at the time.
The actual extent of Armenian religious establishments in he Holy Land during
the Byzantine period is not easily determined. A document in the archives of the
St James Monastery attributed to a seventh century monk, Anastas Vartabed,
contains a list of seventy monasteries and churches owned by the Armenians at
the time in and around Jerusalem. The document asserts that a number of
monasteries confiscated by the Greek Church during the dyophysite persecutions
were eventually returned after some Armenian princes paid large sums of money
to Emperor Justinian I. Soon after, when the Byzantine authorities in Jerusalem
warned the monophysites, including the Armenians, that unless they adhered to
the Calcedonian doctrine they would not be allowed to live in Jerusalem, it is
said that some five hundred monks were advised by Catholicos Hovhannes II
(557-574 ), to abandon their monasteries rather than submit to the threats of the
Greeks and compromise their core beliefs. Many monks are said to have left for
the city of Ceasaria on the coast of Palestine and to Cairo , Egypt , where large
Armenian communities existed at the time. However, some Armenian clergy
somehow remained in Jerusalem to maintain and protect the Holy Sites and
institutions in spite of heavy-handed harassment by the Greeks who were eager
to lay their hands on the Armenian properties. Thus, in the face of constant
Byzantine coercion Armenians held on until after the Persian conquest of
Jerusalem in A.D.614 and the subsequent Arab conquest in A.D. 638.
In retrospect, the Council of Calcedon proved to be a crucial milestone and a
highly significant watershed in the history of Christianity. It demonstrated the
human shortcomings of the people who preached the message of love and peace
proclaimed by the Son of God. Yet in practice they germinated the seeds of
dissension and intolerance. The legacy of Calcedon can be characterized by a
spirit of distrust and a deep chasm along Christological, ethnic and racial lines
resulting in the eventual fragmentation of the Christian world and the
establishment of a multitude of denominations, sects, and constantly warring
religious groupings well into the twentieth century where brother still kills brother
in the name of God.
As to the Armenian Church, by affirming both a unique doctrinal position and
their apostolic traditions, the Armenians maintained their National Church and
distinct identity. Pressures from Byzantium, and in later years by the Latin
Church, over the past fifteen hundred years has not shaken the Armenian people
from their deep-rooted faith. By the start of the sixth century the Armenian
Church made a clean break from the dominance of the Byzantine Church.
In A.D.551, it adopted its own calendar and in A.D.554, at the second Council
of Dvin, a complete break from Constantinople was officially proclaimed. By
A.D.609, an independent National Armenian Church was declared, which meant
that the Bishop of Jerusalem among others, became directly responsible to the
Catholicos.
After the wide-spread destruction of Jerusalem by the invading army of the
Persian king Khosrov II in A.D.614, Armenians took an active part in the
reconstruction of the Holy sites. Preserved correspondence between Patriarch
Modestus of Jerusalem and Catholicos Komidas of Armenia show the extent
and importance of their cooperation.
Muslim Arab Era
The rule of Byzantine (Roman) emperors ended when the army of Arab Caliph
Omar Ibn-El- Khattab (634-644) entered Jerusalem in February 638. Thus
began the first phase in the era of Muslim rule lasting until July 15,1099, when
the Crusaders entered Jerusalem under the command of Godfrey De Bouillon.
There is a historical irony in that the Muslim conquest of Palestine which the
Arabs called "Falastin", also gave impetus to the growth of the Armenian
presence in the Holy Land. Under the rule of the Roman emperors the Armenian
church was relegated to a secondary position behind the Greek church and was
represented by a small bishopric while the Greeks had a Patriarch. However, the
situation changed with the arrival of Caliph Omar who seemed to have been well
disposed toward the Armenians. Having fought the Byzantine emperors, he
distrusted the Greeks, and it seemed to him that he could rely on the loyalty of
the Armenians.
The first Armenian Patriarch on record is Bishop Abraham I (638-660). He was
elevated to the position of Patriarch under a charter issued by Caliph Omar in
A.D.640. Since then there have been uninterrupted successive regimes of
patriarchs, suffragans and lay custodians to this day. The current Patriarch is His
Beatitude Archbishop Torkom Manoogian who ascended the holy throne in
September 1990.
Throughout three successive Arab dynasties, the Umayiad (638-749), the
Abbasid (749-970) and the Fatimid (971-1099) spanning over 400 years,
Armenians enjoyed with very few exceptions, the goodwill of several Caliphs.
There is ample historical evidence through both Arab and Armenian as well as
European chroniclers, proving that Arab rulers enjoyed the trust and loyalty of
the Armenians not only in Jerusalem, but also in Egypt during the Fatimid
dynasty.
Caliph Omar in his charter also enumerated the rights and privileges of the
Armenian Patriarchate over certain Holy Places thus guaranteeing the integrity
and safety of the properties and lives of the Armenians in Jerusalem .
Consequently, each successive dynasty recognized and reaffirmed this right.
One significant aspect of the Arab conquest of Palestine is that for the first time
in the history of the country an invading army entered Jerusalem peacefully. Not
a single life was lost or any property forcibly taken by the Islamic soldiers.
Caliph Omar, one of the most austere and passionate Companions of the
Prophet Muhammad, continued to live as simply as Muhammad had done. In
spite of the riches conquered by his armies he lived a Spartan life and insisted
that his officers do the same. He had more compassion than any previous
conqueror and true to the Prophet's belief, he considered Jerusalem a revered
and holy city. The Arabs continued to call the city Ilya (Aelia) or Bayt
al-Maqdes ( house of the holy) and in later years as Al-Quds (The holy place).
As a result of the tolerant nature of the Islamic religion, Armenians developed
close relationships in several regions of the Arab empire. It is said that because
of their apolitical nature Armenians got along with the Arab rulers. During the
Fatimid dynasty of Egypt they enjoyed special status not only in Egypt but in
Jerusalem as well. Many high ranking officials in the military and the government
were known to be of Armenian descent. History also records two Abassid
Caliphs whose mothers were Armenian including several Grand Viziers and
generals.
Armenians settled in Egypt early in the Roman era. However, their numbers
increased appreciably during the Fatimid rule. It is said that during this period the
Armenian population in Egypt numbered more than 30,000 . It is believed that
this was due to the fact that Armenians who were in key positions of leadership
encouraged their countrymen to settle in countries ruled by the Fatimid Caliphs.
This fact obviously enhanced the position of Armenians in the Holy Land. There
is tangible evidence that the Armenian community had begun to congregate
around the original site of the St. James Church and several churches and
monasteries in the immediate vicinity on Mount Zion, which constituted the core
of the Armenian Quarter as we know it today.
Crusader Period
The Crusader period (1099-1187) is also considered an era in which Armenians
enjoyed growth, prosperity and fair treatment. Several factors contributed to this
situation:
1) Even though at first the Crusader hordes came in as conquerors
pillaging and ransacking cities and committing many misdeeds and
atrocities in Cilicia or Lesser Armenia, their leaders soon realized
that they would benefit more by creating alliances with the
prevailing Armenian kings and princes in the region. On the other
hand, the Armenian princes welcomed this unruly invasion of more
than 100,000 soldiers who assisted them in defeating and expelling
the Seljuk Turks in the east. They agreed to the establishment of
Norman and Frankish princedoms and Kingdoms in the area as a
buffer. Thus crusaders became the Lords of Antioch and Edessa
where the inhabitants were mainly Armenian.
2) Wherever the Crusaders went, they found influential Armenian
allies in the population of the cities. Armenians were found in all
major cities along the Mediterranean coast a well as in the main
cities of Palestine: Jerusalem, Acre, Ceasarea, Gaza, Kerak,
Nablus and surrounding areas.
3) Intermarriage was common between the Frankish nobility and
the Armenian Royal Houses of Cilicia. It was a means of
guaranteeing binding alliances between the parties .For example:
Queen Arda, daughter of Baron Toros of Cilicia, was the wife of
Baldwin of Boulogne, prince of Edessa, who became King Baldwin
I of Jerusalem after the untimely death of his brother Godfrey of
Bouillon of typhoid fever in July 1100. Morphia, daughter of
Gabriel, Governor of Melitene (Malatia), was married to King
Baldwin II of Jerusalem . Upon the death of Baldwin II in 1131, his
daughter Melisend succeeded him as Queen along with her
husband Fulk, Count of Anjou.
In the spring of 1099 the Crusader armies arrived outside the walls of Jerusalem
preceded by their reputation as ruthless warriors. Their cruelty and ruthlessness
was so bad even Christians, including the Greek Patriarch, fled the city. It is said
that the Armenian Patriarch, Simeon (1090-1109), did not think it necessary to
leave the city until the actual siege began. The Crusaders laid siege to the city
and since they did not have the basic knowledge and the means to scale the
walls of a highly defended city as Jerusalem, they remained outside the walls of
the city for several months, until a fleet of ships arriving in Jaffa from Genoa,
Italy, brought in the necessary materials. They also dismantled their ships using
ropes , hooks and the masts to build two wooden towers which they were able
to wheel up to the walls- a device totally unfamiliar to the defending Muslims.
On July 15, a soldier in Godfrey's command managed to penetrate into a tower
of the city wall through one of these wooden towers. He was followed by the
rest of the soldiers who entered the city in sufficient numbers to not only
overwhelm the Arab and Jewish defenders; but for three days they killed every
Saracen and Turk they found in the city. It is said that more than 30,000 people,
including women and children were put to the sword. They pillaged the city and
cold-bloodedly appropriated houses as they pleased without any distinction
between them . It is said, the streets were literally filled with blood of their
enemies. Those Muslims and Jews they did not kill were chased out of the city.
By the time peace and normalcy resumed in Jerusalem out of a population of
100,000 only a few hundred remained.
For some time the city was in shambles until Baldwin arrived in the Holy City on
the ninth of November 1100. He was welcomed with enthusiasm and joy not
only by the remaining Crusaders but by the local Christians including the
Armenians, Greeks, Assyrians, who waited for him outside the walls of the city.
Baldwin realized that if his countrymen had to survive in the Middle East he had
to trust the local Christians in particular the Armenians since his wife was
Armenian. He proceeded to gain the trust and confidence of the Christians.
On November 11, 1100, Baldwin was crowned "King of the Latins" in the
Nativity Church in Bethlehem. During his reign many Armenians flocked into
Jerusalem from Antioch, Edessa, Tarsus, Cilicia and Cappadocia; some
establishing permanent residence . Until 1187, Armenians thrived in the Holy
Land and were given preference . Special laws were enacted granting Armenians
and other Christians trade privileges, tax exemptions and other incentives to
promote their settlement in Jerusalem. Ancient maps depicting the layout of the
walled city of Jerusalem in Crusader times show the existence of an Armenian
compound at its southwest corner. Although relatively small in number,
Armenians seemed to be well established in the Holy Places.
In historical perspective the Crusader era was relatively short-lived. (it lasted
about 88 years). However, the Frankish rulers left a solid legacy that has made
its mark on Jerusalem to this day. The fanatically religious and intolerant
invaders, in time, became civilized secular leaders who rebuilt the city and
introduced a Western flavor to the society, that has lasted to this day. Their
architectural accomplishments are living testimony to their sense of decorum. For
example, the current edifice of the Holy Sepulcher was rebuilt during this era and
remains today as proud monument of religious art and beauty. The most enduring
accomplishment of this period was the construction of the large Armenian
cathedral of St James consisting of a complex of sanctuaries which, besides the
relics of the apostles James the Great and James the Younger, included the
chapels containing the tombs of St Makar and St. Minas.
Ayyubid Period
In 1174, a Kurdish general by the name of Yusuf Ibn Ayyub vanquished the
Shiite Fatimid sultan of Egypt and began conquering most of the Middle East and
by 1187 he entered Palestine from the north. He defeated Guy De Lucignan,
then King of Jerusalem, in July of that year effectively ending Christian rule in
Palestine. Yusuf is usually known in the West as Saladin, an abbreviation of his
title Salah ad-Din ( "The Righteousness of the faith"). A charismatic man, he was
known for his kindliness and piety as well as tolerance toward non-Islamic
religions.
On October 2, 1187, Saladin entered Jerusalem. It was the day Muslims
celebrate The Prophet's Night Journey before he went to heaven. For the
second time in the history of Jerusalem, not a single Christian was killed or
molested. The Frankish Barons and the rich simply paid ransom and left the city.
Although the entire population was considered prisoner, Saladin set them free to
go about their business. Ironically Christian chroniclers depict Saladin as a man
of charity who behaved more Christian than the Crusaders. It is said that Saladin
had a very positive attitude toward Armenians. He is considered the founder of
the Ayyubid dynasty. As such he set the tone for future Sultans in their treatment
of Christians and in particular the Armenians, with respect and dignity.
As an avowed enemy of the Latins and ever suspicious of the Greeks, Saladin
found it expedient to endow the Armenians of the Holy Land with greater
privileges. The Armenian Patriarch Abraham III (1180-1191) and his leading
clerical associates are said to have hastened to pledge their loyalty to the sultan
and to pay the prescribed poll taxes. Unlike other Christians, the Armenian
population of the city, comprising some five hundred monks and one thousand
families, were neither expelled nor taken as slaves by the lieutenants of the
Sultan. Instead, Saladin granted the Armenian Patriarch a charter guaranteeing
the security of all Armenians, the integrity of their possessions, the prerogative of
keeping their Holy Places and the freedom to worship throughout his entire
domain.
The Ayyubid period was relatively less turbulent until the invasion of the
Karizmian Turks in 1244. There was widespread destruction and loss of life.
The city was sacked and destroyed and the population expelled. The Holy
Roman Emperors continued sending Crusader expeditions to Jerusalem but to
no avail. They were either defeated or disintegrated before they arrived at their
destination. It took three years (1096-1099) for the first Crusader to arrive at
the gates of Jerusalem. The seventh and last crusade was headed by King Louis
IX of France. Not only the venture was an abject failure, he and his entire army
was taken prisoner in Egypt in 1250, and remained captive for a few months
until they were ransomed, by the Memluk general, al-Zahir Baybars who in
1251, led a rebellion against Sultan Turan Shah, the last Ayyubid sultan.
Memluk Period
Sultan Al-Zahir Baybars (1260-1276) is considered the founder of the Memluk
dynasty. The Memluks (or Mamaliks ) were not Arab. They were a mixture of
Eurasian tribes mostly of Turkish origin from the steppes of central Asia. It is
said that they were sold as slaves to an Egyptian sultan by Jinghis Khan.( In
Arabic the word Mamluk or Mamalik means "possessed", "slave"or "serf"). They
converted to Islam and being naturally good horsemen, they became an elite
cavalry force in the Muslim army.
While occupied in conquering the rest of the Middle Eastern kingdoms including
Cilicia, the Memluks were not in a hurry to capture Jerusalem since they did not
consider it a strategic city and upon entering it they did not bother to reinforce its
walls. However, until the end of their dynasty in 1513 (over 250 years),
historical evidence shows that they did not persecute the Christians in Jerusalem
and because of the existence of an Armenian colony in Egypt they looked
favorably toward the Armenians.
Unfortunately, during this period considerable manipulation, bribery and intrigue
on the part of the Christian denominations for the possessive rights of the Holy
places were prevalent. Arbitrary decisions taken by certain Memluk rulers were
motivated by bribery, favoritism and sheer whim. For instance, the Georgian
church whose members had close family ties with the Memluks, became the
main beneficiaries, usurping properties and holy places owned by other
Christians including the Armenians, by simply bribing the sultan of the day.
One very important negative pattern characterizing this period which continued
throughout the subsequent Ottoman rule and through our time, is the emergence
of clear divisions within the Christian communities in the Holy Land resulting in
three principal and adversary communities: Greek, Armenian and Latin. They
eventually became the principal custodians and uneasy partners of the Holy
Places. In the process, greed, intrigue and political machinations were the norm
of the day. The Latins and the Greeks constantly conspired to usurp the rights of
the Armenians. At the end, the Greek Orthodox Church became the greatest
beneficiary of the infighting.
Being part of a relatively small nation and without the backing of a strong
country, Armenians had the added burden of defending their rights against the
larger and more influential churches backed by the strength of the Latin and
Greek governments in the West. Without a doubt, the leadership and
statesmanship of the Armenian Patriarchs had a great deal to do with the survival
of the Armenian presence in Palestine coupled with the fact that pilgrimage to the
Holy Places continued on by Armenians living in many countries of the Middle
East and elsewhere.. Some chose to settle there and help the church to built
income properties and provide support and protection.
One bright period in the Memluk era was the ascendance to the Memluk throne
of Sultan Al-Zahir Chaqmaq (1438-1453) who, because of his dislike of the
Crusaders, was fiercely intolerant toward the Latins . He closed their churches
and did not allow them to rebuild their sanctuaries. However, for some
unexplained reason he was positively disposed toward the Armenians whom he
favored. One possible reason is that even though they were closely involved with
the Crusaders, Armenians never espoused their hatred of Islam. As a result of
past tribulations they had learned not to take sides in political conflicts and
remained neutral. Consequently, they were the only community that had
remained in its own quarter without being dislodged or molested during the
upheavals of the previous three hundred years .
In 1438, Sultan Chaqmaq issued a special decree in favor of the Armenians,
forbidding the emir of Jerusalem to harass them with unnecessary taxation and
instructed that an inscription to this effect be engraved at the entrance of St
James Convent. Today, as the visitor enters the main gate of St. James Convent,
on the back wall behind an ornate stone fountain there is an elaborately carved
inscription in Arabic letters, which loosely translated warns all intruders:
"This decree from Our Lord Sultan and King Al-Daher Abu
Sayid Muhammad , cursed be all those and their sons
through generations and may the Almighty Allah curse
whosoever causes harm or inflicts an injustice of any kind
upon this holy place. Abu Kheyer Razan hereby guarantees
this to the Armenian Convent of Jerusalem. In the year of
Muhammad 854" (1438 A.D.)
Like most Oriental cities, Jerusalem was divided into distinct neighborhoods or
quarters. The inhabitants of Jerusalem tended to live in separate districts
according to their religion and ethnic origin. The Armenians and the Maghribis
(Westerners) lived together in one quarter in the southwestern corner. Muslims
from various countries in Asia ( including Iranians, Afghanis and Indians) lived
next to the Haram or the Mosque of Omar in the northwest corner. The
relatively small group of Jews lived in the southeastern corner. However, there
was no strict rule for segregation. There were neighborhoods where Muslims,
Jews and Christians lived side by side. Shops, trades and businesses were
conducted without distinction between the various religious and ethnic groups.
Ottoman Period
Sultan al-Ashraf Aqnouk al-Ghuri (1513-1516) was the last Memluk ruler. In a
crucial battle outside Cairo in 1515, he was defeated by Sultan Selim I of the
Ottoman dynasty effectively bringing the end of 250 years of Memluk rule. In
December 1516, Sultan Selim arrived outside Jerusalem. The leaders of the
Muslim, Christian and Jewish communities welcomed him with opened arms.
Hence, there was no bloodshed nor forceful conquest. In reality, the people of
Jerusalem were greatly relieved to see the Turks and gladly handed the sultan the
keys to the city.. Being a pious man , it is said that upon seeing the El-Aqsa
mosque and the Dome of the Rock, Selim jumped off his horse, got on his knees
and shouted "Thank be to God! I am the possessor of the sanctuary of the first
Qiblah (House of God) !".
The subsequent history of the Holy Places in Jerusalem and its environs has been
a long story of bitter animosity and contention among rival Christian churches, as
well as the cause of international conflicts. As one of the principal custodians of
the dominical sites, the Armenian Church was frequently victimized by these
developments. The stronger and continuous challenge to the Armenians and their
holdings in the Holy Land came from the Greeks who continuously attempted to
ignore and bypass the charters issued in march 1517, to the Armenian and
Greek Patriarchs by Sultan Selim I on the basis of ancient edicts issued by the
previous Arab sultans who effectively had sanctioned a status quo in the holy
Land. Sultan Selim's edict guaranteed the integrity of the age-old Armenian
possessions within and outside Jerusalem, as well as those of their dependent
communities. The edict also prohibited members of imperial families, government
officials and other communities from disturbing the ecclesiastical rites of the
Armenians as well as those of their dependent communities; it prohibited the
molestation of Armenian monasteries , sanctuaries and other possessions.
The Ottomans, as the westerners call them, were originally Seljuk Turkish tribes
out of the steppes of central Asia, who migrated west to Asia Minor following
the armies of Jenghis Khan. Initially they dominated parts of Anatolia. Osman I
(or Uthman Ghazi, 1258-1326) overthrew the Seljuk sultan and began the
conquest of the rest of Asia Minor. He is considered being the founder of the
Osmanli, hence Ottoman, empire. By the time Sultan Selim entered Jerusalem
the Ottoman empire was establish throughout the entire fertile crescent , Egypt,
Persia and parts of Europe. After the capture of Constantinople from the
Byzantines in 1453, the empire extended to the Balkans.
At first the Ottomans brought law and order to the city of Jerusalem. In spite of
their Islamic beliefs they were quite tolerant of Christians and Jews. However, as
a result of their battles in the conquest of Europe they distrusted the Latins who
in turn hated them. This situation benefitted both the Greeks and the Armenians
since they were already well known to the Turks and were classified as official
"Millet"(nations) within the vast Ottoman Empire. Of course the existence of
Greek and Armenian Patriarchates in Istanbul (Constantinople) was of great help
to both nations.
The status of Jerusalem improved dramatically during the reign of Sultan
Suleiman The Magnificent (1520-1566). Jerusalem was the chief beneficiary of a
cultural awakening. Between 1536 and 1541, he rebuilt the walls around the city
which stand to this day . He also undertook the construction of many buildings
that benefitted all the communities in the city. He promulgated laws and
administrative procedures that lasted 400 years . Since the entire Asia Minor
was under one rule pilgrims began visiting the Holy Places in large numbers.
Armenians of all classes made their pilgrimage to the Holy Land through land and
sea. The Convent of St Nicholas in Jaffa, the seaport, was the starting point for
the seafarers who came from Anatolia and points in Europe. These pilgrims
brought gifts and riches to enhance the status of the Armenian Church. Some
settled to form a sizable community which over the years became the Armenian
Quarter as we know it today.
After the death of Suleiman in 1566, weaker sultans began to neglect Jerusalem.
They assigned minor functionaries to govern the city which eventually ended up
being governed by local Arab families. The Greek Orthodox patriarchs were
well placed in Istanbul to pull strings in the royal court bribing the sultans and
high level functionaries. Corruption, graft and intrigue were encouraged by the
sultans as a means of keeping the adversaries off balance, and the ownership of
the Holy Places changed hands according to who gave the most bribe. By the
middle of the nineteenth century total chaos prevailed. There were daily fights
among the followers of the "Man of Peace" for the control and maintenance of
the Holy Places. Competition was so fierce and ruthless between the Greeks and
the Latins, it compelled European and Russian governments to interfere in the
internal affairs of the Ottoman empire. It may sound quite incongruous for our
time, the bitter feuding between the Greeks and the Latins led to a full-scale war
between the European powers. In 1847, a very serious brawl took place
between the Greek and Latin priests which led to bloodshed amid accusations
over the disappearance of a silver star belonging to the Latins in the Church of
Nativity in Bethlehem. This led to a diplomatic clash between France and Russia,
the so-called "protectors " of the two churches. This quarrel gave Britain and
France the excuse to start the Crimean war in 1854, in which the Turkish sultan
Abdul Majid fought the Russians on the side of the allies. The Russians were
defeated.
In February 1852, Abdul Majid issued his famous Firman (edict) on the status of
the Holy Places. It became the official declaration of Status Quo which
established and regulated all religions in the Holy Places and froze in place the
rights and privileges of the parties as they stood at that time. The document also
promulgated that these rights cannot be amended or modified in any way shape
or form . The main beneficiaries of this edict turned out to be the Greek Church.
The Status Quo was confirmed and recognized by the Paris Convention in 1856,
the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, the Versailles Peace Treaty in 1919 and the
Palestine Order-in-Council in 1922, after the defeat of the Ottomans in World
War I.. This last council added the following statement. "It is understood that no
alterations can be made in the Status Quo of the Holy Places". Since 1967, the
Israeli government has given partial acceptance to the Status Quo as it pertains
to the Christian sites, reserving their right to those holy places they consider
historically and traditionally belonging to the Jewish people.
The reader may ask, "How did the Armenians come through all these
struggles?". History tells us that for a small nation, Armenians have done quite
well. Deserved credit must be given to the leaders of the Armenian Church
namely, the Patriarchs of Constantinople and Jerusalem backed by certain
strong-willed Catholicoi in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries .It is
demonstrated by the fact that the Status Quo recognized the Armenian Church
as one of three principal custodians of the Holy Places on equal standing with the
Latin and Greek churches. No other denomination has standing within this
scheme.
In all matters of principle relating to the Status Quo in the Christian Holy Places,.
only the three major rites - Greeks, Armenians and Latins were taken into
exclusive consideration. The three Patriarchs had the right to enter the Holy
Sepulcher in formal procession. They alone had the right to ask that its entrance
be opened by the Muslim door keeper, a descendant of the original family to
whom the task was given in the nineteenth century.
End of Ottoman Rule
The end of Ottoman (Osmanly) rule came inauspiciously in the first decade of the
twentieth century. The last Ottoman ruler, Sultan Abdul-Hamid was deposed by
the Turkish army in Macedonia led by a dissident group called the Young Turks
who proceeded to establish a constitutional government on July 24,1908. Thus,
the rule of Ottoman sultans, which started with the capture of Constantinople in
1453, and ended ignominiously in the summer of 1908, was also the beginning of
the end for Turkish supremacy over the countries in southern Europe (the
Balkans), northern Africa and the Fertile Crescent. On January 23, 1913, a
coup led by Turkish ultranationalists gave dictatorial powers to a small group led
by the infamous triumvirate of Enver pasha, minister of War, Talaat pasha,
minister of Interior and Jamal Pasha, minister-governor of Constantinople.
Ignoring from the start the provisions of the Turkish Constitution which gave
certain rights to all segments of society, they ruthlessly suppressed all opposition.
In the fall of 1914, the Turkish leaders were persuaded by the Germans to join
them and their allies in the war against Britain, France and Russia. Atrocities
toward the Greek and Armenian populations had already begun. Between 1915
and 1918 they intensified their efforts resulting in the tragic genocide of the
Armenians, a catastrophe presaging another future tragic event that would have a
profound impact on the history of the Holy Land- the persecution and
destruction of the Jewish people by Nazi Germany.
As a result of territorial losses in the Balkan wars of 1908-1912, and the
declaration of independence by Albania, the Turkish government had to contend
with the relocation in western Armenia, of its more than 500,000 displaced
Muslims who were obviously anti-Christian, the idea of relocation worried
Armenian leaders, since it meant the dislocation of Armenians in certain areas of
Turkey. In order to make room for these refugees, the official Turkish policy was
to vacate certain Armenian villages. The code word they used was "deportation".
In reality, their undeclared objective was to establish a pan-Turkish hegemony,
by eliminating all non-Turks or to Turkisize all minorities and bring together all
the Muslim people from Transcaucasia, Iran and Central Asia into one Turkish
empire. In particular, they would eliminate with one stroke " The Armenian
Question"and consequently, it was the undeclared objective of the infamous trio
to exterminate the Armenians in Turkey with the help of the Germans who were
anxious to build the Berlin-Baghdad railroad.
The genocide of the Armenians effectively started on the night of April 24, 1915,
a date that has gone in infamy , and is remembered by Armenians throughout the
world to this day. After rounding up and executing more than two hundred
Armenian intellectual, religious and political leaders in the country, the Turks
proceeded to implement the systematic extermination of the Armenian population
in major cities and villages under the pretext of "deportation" just as it turned out
to be the case in Nazi Germany during World War II.
In February 1915, Armenian soldiers had already been disarmed and relegated
to work details, and many young men were shanghaied in the Turkish army and
forced to perform humiliating menial jobs and treated as prisoners along with
other minorities (Greeks and Jews in particular). Explicit orders were given to all
the governors and military commanders of the Armenian provinces to remove the
Armenians by force from their ancestral homes. The ethnic cleansing was
systematic and well planned. They assembled all the able-bodied men they could
find in the towns and villages, took them out of town and shot them dead. The
remaining helpless old men, women and children were driven out of their homes
and herded into caravans without food and water. Those who fell along the
wayside were shot by the Turkish soldiers and Kurdish irregulars. Some were
pushed into rivers and those who did not drown were shot by the soldiers.
Those surviving these atrocities were driven toward the southern desert of
Turkey. On the way, Turkish, Kurdish and Arab families snatched away the very
young children to make them members of their families, young women or teenage
girls were either raped or taken to become wives and concubines, or house
maids to rich Turks . Finally, those arriving in the desert of Deir- Zor were shot
and left to die in the hot sun in freshly dug pits. Thus, more than one and a half
million Armenians were mercilessly exterminated. Fortunately, another million
succeeded in escaping the first major genocide of the twentieth century. In later
years, Hitler is known to have said "Who remembers the Armenians? " as he
was "deporting" and exterminating the Jews.
It is an irony of history that the Armenian population in Jerusalem survived the
genocide. At the time, Jerusalem was the headquarters of the VIII Corps of the
Turkish Seventh Army commanded by Jemal Pasha, assigned to defend
Palestine against a possible attack by the British in Egypt. The port city of Gaza
in the south was fortified for this purpose leaving a relatively small garrison in and
around the Old City of Jerusalem ( a couple of thousand troops in all). The
Armenian population of Jerusalem called then and now in Armenian,
"Kaghakatsi" (City folk or locals as against "Kaghtagan"-refugees) were not
molested or massacred like their brothers and sisters in Turkey proper.
However, those working for the city government were removed from their
positions. With the British threatening from Egypt, the understaffed Turks were
suspicious of all minorities, Jews, Arabs, Greeks and Armenians alike . They
began forcibly conscripting young men from the city and sending them to
Anatolia to do menial work. Some young men escaped. Jews in the Jewish
Quarter hid in synagogues and with friends, Arabs hid in the Mosque of Omar
while Armenians took refuge inside the safe confines of St. James Convent.
Because of its sacred status, the Turks were reluctant to commit atrocities within
the Old City. The average citizenry, including Armenians went about their
business, and family life continued as usual. It is believed that one important
factor in this situation was attributable to the Arab leadership in Jerusalem .
Although the governor of Palestine was a Turk generally residing in Damascus,
the city was actually run by Arab functionaries, including the Mayor and his
deputies. At this time the mayor of Jerusalem was Hussien Selim Al-Husseini, a
member of three ruling Arab families who over the past hundreds of years had
administered the affairs of the city and its associated institutions.
Historically, the Arabic speaking local Armenians had close ties with their Arab
neighbors who prevented any incursion against their age-old neighbors. Further,
the Turks were quite aware that as a religious institution, the St James Monastery
was protected by the edicts of Arab as well as Turkish Sultans. Consequently,
the St James Brotherhood was able to open its doors to not only young
Armenian deserters from the Turkish army but also provided shelter and food to
refugees from the Turkish massacres. This activity was unprecedented since in
the past the secular public was not permitted to take indefinite residence within
the confines of the monastery. Although this decision was quite praiseworthy in
its face, it created an endemic situation with serious repercussions in the future
status of the St James Monastery which will be discussed later .
The Ottoman empire spawned the most corrupt rulers of the Holy Land. The
only positive legacy they left was the establishment and enforcement of the Status
Quo in the Holy Places,. which contributed to an equitable distribution of rights
and the potential for balanced harmony among the Christian communities.
The British Are Coming
By 1916, the British government had amassed a large military force in Egypt.
Prime Minister Lloyd George and his cabinet decided that they needed some
kind of spectacular victory in the Middle East that would distract attention from
the stalemated trench wars in France. They had already faced the Turks in
Gallipoli with disastrous results and were about to start a campaign in
Mesopotamia.
The British Egyptian Expeditionary Force consisted of several divisions from
England, France, Australia, New Zealand and India. They were supplemented
by an Armenian volunteer brigade called the Armenian Legion as well as the
Jewish Brigade, among others. The commander of the forces, General Murray,
was replaced in the summer by General Edward Allemby who was told by the
prime minister to capture Jerusalem as a Christmas present to the British people.
Allemby crossed into the Sinai Peninsula along the Mediterranean coast and
prepared to capture the towns of Beersheba and Gaza at the southern end of
Palestine. On October 30,1917, Beersheba was taken and on November 7,
1917, against strong Turkish resistance, Gaza fell to the expeditionary forces
leaving open the road to Jerusalem as the Turkish army retreated to the north.
On November 21, 1917, Allemby's forces took positions in the hills in sight of
the city of Jerusalem, and between December 4 and 8, the last attack was
launched against the Turks deployed in the hills surrounding Jerusalem Many
Turkish soldiers were killed and the rest retreated toward Jericho. By nightfall on
December 8, the panicky Turks abandoned the city for good after some looting.
Thus, The Turkish rule of Jerusalem lasting almost four hundred years
(1516-1917) came to a humiliating end. The day before, Turkish police
succeeded in forcing some Greeks and Armenians (about 300 ) to abandon the
city marching them on foot toward Jericho facing severe hardships on their was
to Damascus. However, they did not have time to drive the rest of the population
from the city, thus saving them form an uncertain fate.
In the morning of December 9,1917, the Arab Mayor of Jerusalem, Hussein
Efendi Al-Husseini, the highest official left in Jerusalem, carrying a makeshift
white flag made out of a large sheet borrowed from an American missionary and
bearing the symbolic keys to the city, set out to surrender the city to the British
forces bivouacked a short distance away. He was accompanied by a group of
Christian priests, Muslim Imams, Jewish rabbis and some children. It seems that
the British soldiers were still sleeping in their tents. At some distance from the
northwestern entrance to the Old City they met two unsuspecting British soldiers
who were out looking for water. Privates H.E. Church and R.W.J. Andrewes
did not know what to do with this delegation. A typically British shuffle up the
chain of command ensued. After several hours, the delegation was finally met by
a brigadier-general who accompanied them back to the city and told them to
wait for Major General Shea to accept the surrender of the City officially in the
name of the commander-in-chief, Allemby.
On December 11, 1917, following precise instructions laid out three weeks
earlier by London, General Allemby entered Jerusalem for the formal ceremony
of surrender. Out of deference to the "Holy City" he entered the city on foot
through the Jaffa Gate . In spite of the fact that the Turkish forces were
positioned about four miles north of the city on the road to Ramallah and on the
Mount of Olives to the east preparing to counter attack, the population of the
city was celebrating their liberation with great enthusiasm. Fortunately, the
Turkish offensive was repulsed the next day forcing them to retreat further north.
For the first time since the Crusaders arrived in Jerusalem in 1099, Christmas
was celebrated under the rule of a Christian power. Even though the Holy City
was no longer within range of its guns, the Turkish army was not driven out of
Palestine until September 1918, almost a year after the liberation of Jerusalem.
On December 30, 1918, the Turkish government signed an armistice, ending in
defeat and ignominy and effectively obliterating an empire that started in 1453
with the conquer of Byzantine Constantinople 563 years before.
On December 28, 1918, British military rule was formally declared in Palestine.
On July 22, 1922, with the approval of the Council of League of Nations, the
British mandate for Palestine began. When on May 15, 1948, the last British
soldier left on a ship from Haifa, 31 years of British presence in Palestine ended
inauspiciously.
In the Armenian cemetery, outside the southern wall of the Old City and
adjacent to the St. Savior Armenian Convent, there stands a stone monument in
memory of fallen members of the Armenian Legion. Buried in these sacred
grounds are some (23) of the men who gave their lives for the liberation of the
Holy Land from the Ottomans. Each April 24, led by the Patriarch of Jerusalem
and accompanied by members of the St. James Brotherhood, Armenians gather
around this monument in solemn commemoration of the fallen heroes ( about 25)
whose names are engraved on the monument. They also remember and pray for
the victims of the Turkish genocide.
Legacy Of British Rule
The British rule in Palestine can be characterized as one of sustained deviousness
on the part of its leaders and a repudiation of their public image as the saviors
and do-gooders of the Holy Land. Even before the conquest of Palestine the
government in London was instructing its commanders in the field to make
contradictory promises designed to attain their objectives. The subsequent
two-faced approach to governing during the British mandate, spawned the
pattern of contradictory decisions that set the pattern of unrest and violence
among both Jews and Arabs, that was to become the curse of the Holy Land
lasting to this day, eighty years after their first entrance in Jerusalem.
While their armies in the field had barely begun the invasion of Palestine, the
government in London was sowing the seeds of contradictory decisions. In
March 1915, Herbert Samuel, a member of the British Liberal Government and
a Jew, proposed the establishment of a British protectorate over Palestine into
which Jews from all over the world could settle. It was supported by other
members of the government. In October 1915, as they were preparing to drive
the Turks out of Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula, British functionaries in
the field were promising the Arabs four cities , Damascus, Homs, Hama and
Aleppo in Syria, to be part of their autonomous territories in return for their help
in vanquishing the Turks. Instead, at the end of the war in 1918, Syria was
placed under French mandate. At the same time the British kept to themselves
their intention to occupy all lands west of the of the Jordan river, including
Jerusalem which would become the center piece of British controlled territory.
As the war against the Turks in Mesopotamia progressed with the help of Arab
tribes, the British government repeatedly broke faith and reneged or modified
their promises to the Arabs.
The proposal for a home for the Jews in Palestine was revived on November
9,1917. Foreign Secretary Arthur J. Balfour, with the approval of the British
cabinet headed by Prime Minister Lloyd George, made public a letter sent to
Lord Rotschild a week earlier, in which Balfour promised to use British influence
to establish a "National Home in Palestine " for the Jews. Upon reading this letter
in public. Herbert Samuel in a speech stressed that there must be "Full, just
recognition of the Arabs who constitute a majority of the population of that
country" adding that at the same time they must demonstrate "a reverent respect
for the Christian and Muslim Holy Places which in all eventualities should always
remain in the control and charge of the representatives of those faiths."
The true intentions of the British government came into light when on February
27, 1920, the military officer administering the government of Palestine, Major
General Louis Bols, issued a proclamation that the British Government intended
to carry out the promise of the Balfour Declaration. This act triggered serious
riots by the Arab population of Jerusalem and elsewhere in the country. It was
the beginning of continuous unrest, rioting, and guerilla warfare that plagued the
Holy Land throughout British rule.
The arrival of the British in Jerusalem in December 1917, was met with great
jubilation and relief by every segment of the population including the Armenians.
The fear of persecution by the Ottomans had dissipated forever. Because of their
apparent humanitarian approach, the British were unlike any other conqueror in
the tortured history of Jerusalem. Working with the American red Cross, they
began providing food and shelter to more than seven thousand refugees,
Armenians, Syrians, Latins, Greek Orthodox, Protestants, Jews and Muslims.
Several hundred Armenian refugees were settled by the red Cross in one of the
most neglected and run-down areas in the Old City called the Cotton Market.
At the same time, the St. James Brotherhood opened its doors further providing
additional shelter to the Armenian refugees inside the walls of the convent.
Since at the time the throne of the Armenian Patriarchate was vacant, the British
military rulers in Egypt invited Archbishop Torkom Koushagian, then prelate of
the Armenian church in Egypt, to visit Jerusalem and preside over the Easter
celebrations to be conducted under Christian rule for the first time since the
Crusaders. This move turned out to be quite beneficial for the Armenians. It
helped ensure that their rights and privileges in the Holy Places were reaffirmed .
In March 1918, General Storrs, the military governor of Jerusalem, called a
meeting of all the community leaders in Jerusalem , Moslem, Christian, Jewish
Orthodox, and the local Arab government dignitaries. The purpose of this
meeting was to introduce a newcomer from England, Chaim Weizmann,
Chairman of the newly established Jewish Zionist Commission . Also present
was Archbishop Torkom Koushagian. Weizmann attempted to allay the fears of
the attendees by telling them that the aim of the Zionists was not to establish their
power over the other communities , but to work together for a common goal of
self-determination. This message was received with mixed feelings by all present.
Future contacts with members of the Zionist Commission made the Arabs wary
of their intentions.
As acting Patriarch, the presence of Archbishop Koushagian in Jerusalem
proved to be crucial to the future well-being of the Armenian church. His strong
and determined representation of the rights and privileges of the Armenian
church in the face of blatant attempts by the Greek Orthodox church to
invalidate the Ottoman edict of Status Quo and usurp some of the Holy Sites
owned by the Armenians , ensured that the British recognized and affirmed these
rights. After the defeat of Germany ending World War I, the Armenian National
Delegation which included Archbishop Yeghishe Tourian, the near future
Patriarch of Jerusalem, lobbied the participants of the Versailles Treaty
Conference in 1919 to ensure recognition and acceptance of the Ottoman Status
Quo, which they did. In 1922, the Palestine Order in Council again reaffirmed
the Status Quo, adding: "It is well understood that no alteration can be made on
the Status Quo of the Holy Places."
In spite of the continued conflict and violence which started in 1921 throughout
the British Mandate, the Armenian community in the Holy Land enjoyed a
remarkable period of rejuvenation and growth socially, culturally, and religiously
under the benevolent, open-minded, and progressive rule of successive British
governors. Armenians continued their traditional way of living uninvolved in the
struggles around them, retaining their age-old custom of apolitical behavior by
embracing an even-handed neutrality, and under the guidance of the Patriarchate
did not participate in the political conflict engulfing the Arab and Jewish
communities. Although they were not considered combatants , on certain
occasions some became innocent victims of violence from both sides.
The duplicity of the British rulers with respect to the status of the Jews and
Arabs in Palestine was root-cause of the conflict that reached its crescendo in
the latter part of the 1940s. In May 1921, Arabs began to riot against the
continuing British policy of allowing the massive immigration of Jews into
Palestine. On the other hand, extremist Jewish groups began a campaign of
terror against both the British and the Arabs culminating in the indiscriminate
killing of British soldiers, Arab as well as Jewish innocent civilians. By the spring
of 1939, Jewish terrorists were killing British soldiers in protest of British refusal
to allow Jewish refugees escaping Nazi Germany to land into Palestine. Those
caught were sent to internment camps in Cyprus.
During World War II (September 1939-August 1945), terrorist activities from
both sides were somewhat curtailed. However, after the unconditional surrender
of Japan to the United States (August 28, 1945), the violence resumed with a
vengeance. The most devastating terrorist attack took place on July 22,1946.
When members of Irgun Zvi Leumi, an extremist Jewish group which included
two future prime ministers of Israel, Menachem Begin and Itzhak Shamir,
disguised as Arabs placed explosive charges in milk churns into the hall outside
the Regence Cafe in the basement of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, where
the British Military Headquarters and other government offices occupied the
third through the fifth floors. At 12:37, the explosives went off . Above the cafe,
the entire south wing of the hotel , all five floors containing twenty fives rooms
collapsed. Ninety two people were killed, buried helplessly under the rubble.
Among the dead were military and civilian personnel, soldiers, clerks, typists,
janitors, messengers, and drivers. Four Armenians were also victims; three
female secretaries and a driver, Garabed Paraghanian.
Faced with the increased violence and indiscriminate killings, Armenians began
to take steps to ensure their neutrality. The men began wearing Russian style fur
caps and grew moustaches to distinguish them from the Jewish men who
normally wore fedoras, and from the Arab men, dressed in their traditional red
and white checkered Bedouin headgear. The women were ever so careful not to
expose themselves to unnecessary dangers by abstaining from going to movies at
night or go shopping in Jewish areas without escort. They generally stayed inside
their own neighborhoods.
There is an ironic element in the inconsistent style of governing by the British in
Palestine in that, in spite of the ongoing struggles and violence they caused, they
also introduced a Western influence on all the divergent segments of society.
Like the disciplined missionaries they were, they encouraged the awakening and
development of educational and cultural endeavors in each and every community
in the country without distinction to religious and ethnic background. Ethnic and
parochial schools and institutions of higher education, athletic clubs, musical and
literary societies were established and maintained with professional efficiency.
Although the intellectual and literary awakening which had begun in the middle of
the nineteenth century in Western Armenia was given a mortal blow by the Turks
with the murder of more than two hundred prominent creative leaders,
Armenians attempted to regain the impetus of rebuilding their cultural base in
Jerusalem where under the protective umbrella of British rule they could blossom
and progress in freedom. The principal motivator of this movement was
Archbishop Yeghishe Tourian, an experienced educator, man of letters, and
dean of the seminary of Armash (1890-1914) in Western Armenia. In 1921 he
was elected Patriarch of Jerusalem. A lifelong advocate of education, he set out
to bring together the intellectuals who survived the genocide. Immediately after
his elevation to the See, he initiated the construction of the first co-educational
institution in Jerusalem, a four-story stone building adjacent to the theological
seminary inside the walls of the St. James Convent. In the summer of 1929, the
completed school building was dedicated and named Soorp Tarkmantchats
School (Holy Translators) and opened in time for the start of the scholastic year
in September. Also in 1929, the construction of the massive Gulbenkian Library
named after its benefactor, millionaire oil man Calouste Gulbenkian was
completed and opened for public use .
The theological seminary was reorganized, its curriculum modernized and the
faculty staffed with prominent teachers fortunate to survive the genocide. The
student body of the seminary was increased by recruiting young men orphaned in
the Turkish massacres as well as scholastically qualified boys from countries in
the Middle East. The printing press and other departments in the Patriarchate
were refurbished and strengthened. A spirit of enthusiasm and rejuvenated
energy emanated from every sector of Armenian society.
After the passing of Patriarch Tourian on April 27, 1930, he was succeeded by
Archbishop Torkom Koushagian who was elevated to the throne on December
1, 1931. Not being a stranger to Jerusalem, Koushagian, a graduate, subsequent
teacher and assistant dean of Armash seminary, followed in the footsteps of his
venerated mentor and friend. He continued with enthusiasm the constructive
work of his predecessor emphasizing all aspects of education and intellectual
enlightenment. As an experienced and highly capable administrator with
international contacts ( he was fluent in four languages, Armenian, French,
English and Turkish), he continued to improve the status of the Armenian church
in the Holy Land as well as ensure that the financial base of the Patriarchate
remained strong and viable.
Patriarchs Tourian and Koushagian are venerated to this day as two of the most
prominent men in the history of the Armenian presence in the Holy Land along
with a handful of their predecessors. In utilizing their dynamic personalities and
charm, they established a strong foundation for future generations. Because of
their efforts, the Armenian community in Jerusalem would thrive and grow
producing thousands of educated and professional men and women who to this
day are strong contributors to Armenian communities in every corner of the
world. Between 1921 and 1948, in spite of the mortal struggles going on around
them, the number of Armenians in the Holy land grew to about 16,000.They
were the object of envy in other communities in the Middle East.
Came the Partition
On April 2, 1947, the British government, weary of the chaotic situation in
Palestine and tired of the casualties inflicted upon his majesty's subjects by both
the Arabs and Jews, informed the United nations in NewYork that it had
decided to give up the mandate for Palestine. The Palestine Commission formed
soon after, published its report on August 31, 1947, offering its
recommendations. On November 29, 1947, the united Nations Assembly
resolved to partition Palestine according to the plan presented by the Palestine
Commission, to take effect on September 1, 1948. However, the British
government announced that it would leave Palestine on May 15, 1948.
This decision triggered greater violence in Palestine. For the next four months,
while the bulk of the British forces were confined to the safety of their barracks
and the Palestine Police effectively powerless, the warring parties began
jockeying for positions, each side attempting to capture and hold key locations in
anticipation of Partition Day. The killing and bombing which caused the
displacement of people from their ancestral homes intensified while each side
was proceeding to consolidate and secure its respective territories based on the
majority it enjoyed in any given area. A genuine ethnic cleansing had begun.
Mixed neighborhoods were hit hardest with noncombatants, such as Greeks,
Armenians, European embassy people and foreign nationals becoming victims of
mass expulsion and terror. Many well-to-do Armenians living in the outskirts of
the Jerusalem were forced to abandon their homes and walk away, some with
only their shirts on their backs. They found refuge in the Armenian Quarter and
the St. James Convent whence they and their parents came many years before
as refugees of the Turhish massacres.
By March 1948, while the British controlled the main highways and imposed
curfews all over the countryside and with marauding armed Arab and Jewish
combatants filtering through the hills in daily raids against each other, it became
difficult for the neutral population to travel between cities or leave the country at
the risk of being shot or blown up.
At 4:40 P.M., on Friday May 14, 1948, Ben Gurion, Chairman of the Jewish
Agency, read a declaration of independence proclaiming the establishment of a
Jewish State to come into being at midnight the same day. The new country
would be called "Israel ". Although the British Mandate was scheduled to end at
midnight on Saturday, May 15, 1948, Ben Gurion and his associates decided it
would be prudent to declare independence on Friday, the 14th, out of deference
to the Jewish Sabbath and also to avoid the wrath of the religious Orthodox
Jews.
On the morning of May 15, 1948, the High Commissioner of Palestine, General
Sir Alan Cunningham, accepted the lowered British union flag outside the
government house from a small contingent of fifty British soldiers and flew to the
port of Haifa followed by the same contingent of his troops. At the stroke of
midnight that same day, a ship carrying the Commissioner and the remnants of
British officials and the military, left Haifa harbor on its way to England, officially
ending thirty one years of British presence in the Holy Land.
At midnight the previous day ( May 14) King Abdallah of Transjordan, standing
on the Allemby bridge, shot a pistol in the air thus ordering the troops of the
Arab Legion to cross into Palestine, and by nightfall the next day they were
poised at the outskirts of Jerusalem. At the end of the two-week battle that
followed, the Arab legion took control of the Old City trapping the residents of
Jewish Quarter. The hospital in which many Jewish wounded were being treated
caught fire. With the help of soldiers from the Arab legion, the Armenian
Patriarchate located next to the Jewish Quarter, provided shelter to the wounded
from the burning hospital until a truce was called to evacuate them several days
later. The humanitarian act performed by the soldiers of the Arab Legion
surprised the Jewish leadership. It was act that could not be forgotten.
After the cease-fire in November 1948, and the establishment of the "Green
Line" extending north-south cut Jerusalem in half. Armenians were caught in the
middle. Most had lost their homes in the new city and they had to find lodgings in
the Old City . The St. James Convent was already filled beyond its capacity and
most had lost their jobs or businesses. Eventually, the majority found passage to
Amman Jordan, thence to other Arab countries in the Middle East. Those with
means and connections were able to migrate to Armenia, the United States,
South America, England and Europe. Those who remained suffered deprivation
and casualties since both the Armenian Quarter and the St. James Convent were
in the middle of the battle zone. At times, mortar shells fell over some buildings
causing extensive damage to the point that some had to be abandoned. Since
they had no access to their cemetery on Mount Zion outside the Old City walls,
they had to bury their dead in the garden area behind the seminary.
It is said that Patriarch Guregh Israelian (1944-1949) died of a broken heart,
grieving over the sorry state his beloved people and their institutions suffered. He
was buried in the courtyard at the entrance of St. James Cathedral. The six day
war of 1967 also caused great damage to several buildings in the residential
sections of the convent. In particular, the seminary building and the priest's
quarters called Baghchatagh. Both had to be evacuated and abandoned. In
effect, the Patriarchate was also cut off from its outlying income properties and
was deprived of necessary funds to sustain its operations and to feed its
refugees.
As early as the spring of 1948, the Arab/Israeli conflict created a massive
exodus of Armenians who escaped the ravages of war and the destruction of
their way of life. Armenians living in Jaffa, Haifa, Nazaret, Gaza and other
locations in Palestine suffered deprivation, loss of their businesses and homes .
They had to abandon their schools and churches to an uncertain future, never to
return. As of this writing, the number of Armenians residing in Israel is slightly
over two thousand, most living in Jerusalem in and around the Armenian Quarter
in the Old City.
Some Closing Comments
The acquisition and maintenance of the Holy Sites has not been easy for the
Armenians. History is replete with intrigue, corruption and sometimes outright
banditry, a process in which Armenians had to "play the game." In the years
following the edict of Status Quo, the relationship between the principal rites has
not been cordial or cooperative. There have been incursions, scheming and
usurpation by all parties where arbitration became necessary. Fortunately, over
the past twenty years a spirit of cooperation and goodwill has prevailed between
the three major rites. It seems that the legacy of ill will has vanished. An eloquent
example is the joint effort in the restoration of the Holy Sepulcher during the
1980's and early 1990's.
Currently, the three major Christian denominations work together in true
harmony. The three Patriarchs hold regular joint meetings and stand together in
the protection and preservation of their mutual interests. It is quite evident that
they have learned the lessons of history in the true spirit of brotherhood
proclaimed by Jesus Christ. Credit must be given to the current Armenian
Patriarch, Archbishop Torkom Manoogian. His past ecumenical endeavors while
Primate of the Eastern Diocese of the Armenian church in the United States, and
as an effective leader in the World Council of Churches, he has earned the
respect of his colleagues for achieving true universal Christian unity through
interdenominational cooperation.
The three Patriarchs enjoy diplomatic recognition by the Israeli government, thus
affirming the rights and privileges of all Christian churches as well as the
sovereignty of all the Holy Sites including those of the Muslims. Also, the
independence of Armenia has finally provided a governmental entity that can
underwrite the legitimacy of the Armenians in the Holy Land evidenced by the
establishment in 1992 of an Armenian embassy in Tel Aviv.
It is easy to conclude from the preceding account that throughout the Christian
era Armenians have demonstrated a unique fascination toward the Holy Land.
They wanted to see the land where Jesus preached, performed his miracles,
where he was crucified, where he was buried and whence he resurrected. It was
a matter of Christian pride and faith to visit Jerusalem, to be tattooed with the
sign of the cross which they carried home on their bodies as a badge of honor-
something they could be proud to display and be called "Oukhdavor", "Haji"or
"Mahdesi"s (all of which mean Pilgrim).
There are still many dangers lurking as a result of the political upheavals currently
taking place in Israel and the West bank. All Christians must exercise extreme
vigilance to ensure that their rights are protected in order to survive through the
twenty-first century.
Armenian Presence in the Holyland
Key Chronological Events
A.D.70 Jerusalem completely destroyed by Roman general Titus. A small
number of Armenians were part of a non-Jewish population outside the city.
A.D.135 Roman Emperor Herodius, again destroys Jerusalem and renames the
city "Aelia Capitolina", a name officially used by the Romans until A.D.326. It is
said that by the latter date no one remembered the original name.
A.D.254 Historian Bishop Eusebius mentions in his chronicles the existence of a
small Armenian religious community of monks and a bishopric in Jerusalem.
A.D.301 Armenia becomes the first nation to proclaim Christianity as official
state religion.
A.D.323 Roman emperor Constatine I proclaims Christianity as one of the
accepted religions of his empire. Paganism is maintained for another 100 years.
A.D.405 Saint Mesrob Mashtots invents Armenian alphabet and grammar
launching the Golden Age of Armenian history. Holy Bible also translated into
Armenian.
A.D.425 The beginning of the great monastic era continuing to the end of the
eighth century. Armenian pilgrimages also began in force. Armenian mosaics
attest to the existence of many churches and monasteries in the region.
A.D.451 With the decisions of the Council of Calcedon Christian unity begins to
come apart. Battle of Avarayr takes place in Armenia.
A.D.550 Emperor Justinian persecutes monophysites. Armenian Church makes
a clean break from the Greek Orthodox hierarchy and estabishes its own
independent bishopric under the authority of the Catholicoas of Etchmiadzin.
A.D.614 Persian king Khosrov II captures Jerusalem. Armenians take active
part in the reconstruction of the Holy Sites. Persian rule ends in A.D.624.
A.D.634 End of Byzantine Roman rule and the beginning of Muslim Arab era
with the conquest of Palestine by Arab Caliph Omar-Ibn-El Khattab (634-644
A.D.) He enters Jerusalem in February 638.
A.D.640 First Armenian Patriarch on record is Abraham I (638-669). Installed
Patriarch in A.D.640 by edict of Caliph Omar who also constructed the mosque
of Omar in Jerusalem.
A.D.1099 Crusaders storm the walls of Jerusalem and massacre its entire
Muslim population. Armenians are spared because of connections in Cilicia.
Armenians thrive in this period because of close connections with the royal
family.
A.D.1187 End of Crusader era and beginning of Ayyubid Dynasty with the
entrance of Caliph Salah-Ed-Din in Jerusalem on October 2, 1187.
A.D.1260 Beginning of Memluk occupation of Jerusalem by Sultan Al-Zahir
Baybars (1251-1276). Because of large Armenian presence in Egypt,
Armenians well treated.
A.D.1438 Armenians receive favored consideration and a written edict from
Sultan al-Zahir Chaqmaq (1438-1453). An inscription carved on a marble
plaque in Arabic, set in the wall facing the entrance of St James Convent can be
seen to this day.
A.D.1516 End of Memluk centered in Egypt dynasty and beginning of Ottoman
rule. Sultan Selim I (1512-1520) entered Jerusalem in December 1416. Otoman
presence lasted to December 9, 1917, exactly 401 years.
A.D.1643 Patriarch Krikor V, Markarian, Kantsagetsi, also known as
BARONDER, (1613-1645), great builder and fundraiser, purchases extensive
properties and renovates Holy sites.
A.D. 1728 Patriarch Krikor VI, Shirvantsi, (1715-1749) also known as
SHUGHTAYAGIR, meaning, Chainbearer. Wore a heavy chain around his
neck until 1728 when he managed to payoff the large inbebtedness of the
Patriarchate ( accrued by incompetent predecessors)
A.D.1833 During the tenure of Patriarch Boghos Krikorian (1824-1840), the
first modern printing press is installed in a building inside the St. James Convent,
initiated by his successor, Zakaria Gopetsi. Patriarch Boghos also pays off a
bebt of 800,000 Piasters owed by the Patriarchate.
A.D.1843 Patriarch Zakaria Gopetsi (1841-1846) establishes first Armenian
theological seminary in the city of Ramleh north of Jerusalem. In 1845, seminary
is moved into a new complex inside the St. James Convent.
A.D.1862 During the tenure of Vertanes Vartabed Vartanian, Locum Tenens
(1860-1864). The first lay school is established in Jerusalem named Gayane
Girl’s School.
A.D.1866 During the tenure of Patriarch Yesayee Garabedian (1864-1885) the
first Church periodical, "SION", was published by the St James printing press.
An avid photographer,Yesayee opened to the first phographic studio in
Jerusalem.
A.D.1917 On December 11,1917, British General Edward Allemby, formally
takes over the keys to the city of Jerusalem, ending 401 years of Ottoman
Turkish rule.
A.D.1918 In March, British invite Archbishop Torkom Koushagian , Primate of
Egypt, to represent St. James Brotherhood ( Patriarchal throne was vacant at the
time).
A.D.1920 On February 20, British Military Governor in Palestine announces
British intention of implementing the promise of the 1917 "Balfour
Declaration"establishing a Jewish National Home in Palestine. Arabs begin to
riot.
A.D.1921 On September 5,Patriarch Yeghishe Tourian ascends St James
throne. Formerly dean of Armash seminary. Begins educational reform. Plans
construction and establishment of first public school and library.
A.D.1929 In August, first co-ed public school located inside the St James
Convent across the way from seminary is opened. Named "Soorp Tarkmanchats
Varjaran ( Holy Translators School) after Saints Sahag and Mesrob. Also in this
year, the Gulbenkian Library is opened, named after Calouste Gulbenkian,
Benefactor. Patriarch Tourian dies on April 27, 1930.
A.D.1931 On December 1, Patriarch Torkom Koushagian ascends his throne.
Following the footsteps of his mentor, Patriarch Tourian, he modernizes seminary
curriculum, increases number of students and enhances quality of teaching staff.
Dies on February10, 1939.
A.D.1947 On November 29, United Nations Assembly resolves to partition
Palestine.
A.D.1948 At midnight, May 14, David Ben Gurion declares the formation of the
independent state of Israel. Arab/Israeli wars begin. Patrirarchate is isolated and
separated from its properties. Palestine is divided into two camps after truce is
established between Kingdom of Jordan and Israel.
A.D.1967 Israel defeats Arab invading armies and occupies West Bank and all
of Jerusalem. West Bank is under Israel occupation to this date. (December
1997). (See Map).
December 5, 1997

P.S.

http://www.holyland.org/

1300? BCE : Migration and conquest of Canaan by the Phillistines and Israelite tribes.

1000? BCE : Jewish conquest of Jerusalem; reign of David; After the death of David's son, Solomon, the kingdom split into two

721 BCE : Fall of Israel (Northern Kingdom) to Assyria

596 BCE : Fall of Judea (Southern Kingdom) to Babylon

516 BCE : Rebuilding of the Second Temple under Persian rule.

331 BCE : Alexander the Great conquers Persia. The land was subject to Egyptian rule after his death, followed by Seleucid Syrian rule.

166 BCE : Revolt of Judah Maccabee

61 BC : Roman conquest of Jerusalem by Pompei.

70 AD : First Jewish revolt. Fall of the Jewish Second Temple to Romans

133 - 135 : Second Jewish revolt under Bar - Kochba crushed. Judea renamed Palestina

622 : Hijra of Mohammed. Islam is founded.

640 : Arab conquest of Jeruslem. Land was divided into the Jund of filastin, in the south (capital in Al-Lod and later in Ramlah), and the Jund of Urdunn in the north, with capital in Tiberias (Tabariyeh).

1099 : Crusaders conquer Jerusalem, slaughter most Jewish and Moslem inhabitants.

1187 : Salah-ed-din (Saladin) reconquers Jerusalem

1517 : Ottoman Turkish conquest

1699 Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, the first ever imposed on a defeated Ottoman empire by victorious Christian European enemies.

January 1851 : Murder of foreigners including Americans at Jaffa. After a massacre of foreigners (including Americans) at Jaffa in January, a demonstration by the Mediterranean Squadron was ordered along the Turkish (Levant) coast.

1858-59 : The Secretary of State requested a display of naval force along the Levant after a massacre of Americans at Jaffa and mistreatment elsewhere "to remind the authorities (of Turkey) of the power of the United States."

JULY 3, 1908 : The Young Turks revolt breaks out in the Ottoman empire, and is eventually led by Enver Pasha; Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II is forced to restore the constitution of 1876, entailing the creation of a new parliament, and indirect representative elections. ‘Abd al-Hamid is then deposed (27Apr 09), and his brother Mehmet V installed. Policies for the ‘Turkification’ of the Ottoman territories promulgated through 1909, resulting in the creation of societies promoting pan-Arab ideas

1909 : Foundation of Tel Aviv by Zionists (Called Ahuzat Bayit) near Jaffa; foundation of first Kibbutz - Degania

November 18 to December 3, 1912 : Turkey. U.S. forces guarded the American legation at Constantinople during a Balkan War.

NOVEMBER 2, 1917 : British issued the Balfour Declaration, viewed by Jews and Arabs as promising a “National Home” for the Jews in Palestine.

DECEMBER 1917 : Gen. Sir Edmund Allenby captures Jerusalem from Ottomans for the British. Col. Reginald Storrs is appointed military governor.

1919 : Turkey. Marines from the USS Arizona were landed to guard the U.S. Consulate during the Greek occupation of Constantinople.

JANUARY 1919 : First Palestinian Congress advocated incorporation of Palestine into greater Syria.

JULY 1919 : General Syrian Congress (which included prominent Palestinians, Transjordanians, Lebanese & Syrians) held in Damascus, supporting the independence of an undivided Syria, and opposed to Zionism. Britain cedes authority over Syria to France after the congress finishes; Gen. Henri Gourand becomes High Commissioner.

AUGUST 28, 1919 : Henry King and Charles Crane, the US members of the International Commission of Inquiry, sent primarily on the initiative of President Wilson, present their report based on their visit to the region in June-July, against creation of a Jewish National home in Palestine.

FEBRUARY - MARCH 1920 : Two Jewish settlements of Tel Hai and Metullah in N. Palestine attacked (Feb 20). Josef Trumpeldor killed in second attack at Tel Hai (March 1)

JUNE 1920 : Haganah, Jewish Self Defense, organized by Vladimir (Ze'ev) Jabotinsky.

DECEMBER 1920 : Histadrut, the General Federation of Hebrew Workers in the Land of Israel (Histadrut Haklalit Shel Haovdim Haivriyim Be'eretz Yisrael), was formed. Remained exclusively Jewish until 1960s, when it officially dropped ‘Hebrew’ from its name (1966).

MAY 1921 : Arab riots in Jaffa against Jewish population.

JULY 24, 1922 : British Mandate for Palestine; Official establishment of Transjordan as a separate state; Britain, in military control of Syria, allows French forces led by Gourand to retake Damascus by force.

SEPTEMBER - OCTOBER 1922 : Turkey. A landing force was sent ashore with consent of both Greek and Turkish authorities, to protect American lives and property when the Turkish Nationalists entered Smyrna

AUGUST 1929 : Arab riots in Hebron, Jerusalem, Safed, Haifa, Motza and elsewhere. The Jews had set up a dividing screen at the Wailing Wall in Yom Kippur of 1928 to separate men and women worshippers, prompting rumors that the Jews wanted to build a synagogue at wall, which were spread deliberately by Haj Amin El-Husseini. Amid heightening tensions, a demonstration by Jews in 1929 and Arab incitement ignited violence and rioting again Jews. Thousands of Jews fled the ancient Jewish quarter in Jerusalem. The Hebron Jewish community was evacuated after 64-67 were killed in riots.

OCTOBER 21, 1930 : British Passfield White Paper proposes to limit Jewish immigration to Palestine

1934: The United States of America formally recognizes Afghanistan

1947 - UN Partition Plan-- The United Nations approved a partition plan in 1947 that would have created two states, one Jewish and one Arab. The Jews accepted this arrangement. The Arabs refused. Five Arab armies invaded the new state of Israel. In the ensuing war, thousands of refugees fled. Jews fled Arab nations for Israel, and Arabs fled Israel for Jordan, Egypt and Lebanon.

1964: PLO was created.

1967: Arabs attack Israel. Israel came into possession of the West Bank and Gaza only because she was attacked (again) by five Arab armies in 1967.

JUNE 8, 1967 : USS Liberty, attacked by Israeli forces in the Eastern Mediterranean

JULY 16-23, 1968 : American Sailors from USS Independence and accompanying destroyers injured by students during anti-American riots in Istanbul, Turkey

DECEMBER 19-22 , 1968 : Sailors from USS Columbus and accompanying destroyers injured by students during anti-American riots in Izmir, Turkey.

1969 : Libya. Moammar Khadaffi , or Moammar Quadafi, whatever... seizes power in Libya

1970 : Lebanon : Murder of American University of Beirut President, Malcolm Kerr, in Beirut, Lebanon.

SEPTEMBER 1970 : TWA #741 and Pan Am #93 hijacked by the PFLP and flown to Amman, Jordan.

SEPTEMBER 10, 1975 : The Christian village of Deir Ashash in the north of Lebanon was attacked. Elderly priests were slaughtered and all the people were forced to leave their homes. Syrian responsibility

SEPTEMBER 11, 1975 : The Christian village of Beit Millat was attacked. Seven people were killed, and ten were kidnaped. Syrian responsibility

OCTOBER 9, 1975 : The Christian village of Tal Abbas-Akkar, in the north of Lebanon was attacked. Fifteen people were killed. The church was burned to provoke a sectarian war between the Lebanese. Syrian responsibility

JANUARY 21, 1976 : The Christian town of Damour in the south of Beirut was attacked. Two hundred and sixty people were massacred. The majority of the victims were women, children, and elderly. Palestinian responsibility

JUNE 1976: U.S. Ambassador, Francis Meloy and two other Americans killed in Lebanon.

JUNE 13, 1976 The town of Shikka in the north of Lebanon was attacked. Thirty people were massacred. Among them were women, children and elderly. Palestinian responsibility U.S. Ambassador in Lebanon Francis Melloy was assassinated by Palestinian gunmen and the killer was apprehended by Lebanese authorities and jailed. The killer was released by the Lebanese court under pressure by the Palestinians and Syria. The U.S. protested unsuccessfully. Palestinian and Syrian responsibility.

JULY 1976 : The hijacking of Air France Flight 139 in July 1976 by terrorists, and its subsequent re-routing to Entebbe, Uganda, prompted a highly successful raid by an Israeli commando team. In the end, the hostages were freed, no ransom was paid, and the terrorists' demands went unmet.

JULY 22 & 23, 1976 : Lebanon. Helicopters from five U.S. naval vessels evacuated approximately 250 Americans and Europeans from Lebanon during fighting between Lebanese factions after an overland convoy evacuation had been blocked by hostilities.

MARCH 16, 1977 The Druze leader Kamal Jumblaat was assassinated along with his bodyguards. Palestinian responsibility

OCTOBER 1977 : Four terrorists (led by Zohair Youssef Akache) hijacked a 737 bound for Germany from the Balearic Islands. After flitting around Europe and the Middle East, the plane was finally landed in Mogadishu, Somalia. While there, the "crack" German anti-terrorist unit GSG-9, along with two British Special Air Services members on loan, successfully stormed the aircraft and rescued the hostages

JUNE 30, 1978 : The Syrians shelled the Christian area of Beirut for 90 days. The shelling killed and injured hundreds of civilians and destroyed Beirut.

OCTOBER 20, 1978 : Tens of young people were killed and others kidnaped from the village Al-Kaa-, in Ras Beirut, and Jdeided el Fakiha. Syrian Secret Service responsibility

FEBRUARY 23, 1980 : The daughter of Bashir Gemayel (Maya) was killed in a car bomb. Syrian Secret Service responsibility.

FEBRUARY 24, 1980 : The journalist Salim Lawzi was assassinated near Beirut airport. Syrian responsibility... and so on

Nuke Saudi Arabia

Yes, any excuse will do.

I'm serious.