Egypt's Pyramids Packed With Seashells (Not Concrete)

April 25, 2008 -- Many of Egypt's most famous monuments, such as the Sphinx and Cheops, contain hundreds of thousands of marine fossils, most of which are fully intact and preserved in the walls of the structures, according to a new study.

The study's authors suggest that the stones that make up the examined monuments at Giza plateau, Fayum and Abydos must have been carved out of natural stone since they reveal what chunks of the sea floor must have looked like over 4,000 years ago, when the buildings were erected.

"The observed random emplacement and strictly homogenous distribution of the fossil shells within the whole rock is in harmony with their initial in situ setting in a fluidal sea bottom environment," wrote Ioannis Liritzis and his colleagues from the University of the Aegean and the University of Athens.

The researchers analyzed the mineralogy, as well as the chemical makeup and structure, of small material samples chiseled from the Sphinx Temple, the Osirion Shaft, the Valley Temple, Cheops, Khefren, Osirion at Abydos, the Temple of Seti I at Abydos and Qasr el-Sagha at Fayum.

X-ray diffraction and radioactivity measurements, which can penetrate solid materials to help illuminate their composition, were carried out on the samples.

The analysis determined the primary building materials were "pinky" granites, black and white granites, sandstones and various types of limestones. The latter was found to contain "numerous shell fossils of nummulites gen." At Cheops alone, "(they constituted) a proportion of up to 40 percent of the whole building stone rock."

The findings have been accepted for publication in the Journal of Cultural Heritage.

Nummulites, meaning "little coins," are simple marine organisms. Shells of those that lived during the Eocene period around 55.8 to 33.9 million years ago are most commonly found in Egyptian limestone. Fossils for the organisms have also been unearthed at other sites, such as in Turkey and throughout the Mediterranean.

When horizontally bisected, a nummulite appears as a perfect spiral. Since they were common in ancient Egypt, it's believed the shells were actually used as coins, perhaps explaining their name.

Fossils for ancient relatives to sand dollars, starfish and sea urchins were also detected in the Egyptian limestone. Liritzis and his team argue that since the fossils are largely undamaged and are distributed in a random manner within the stone, in accordance with their typical distribution at sea floors, the large building stones used to construct the monuments must have been carved out of natural stone instead of cast in molds.

To further their argument, the scientists say the X-ray patterns detected no presence of lime, which would be expected along with natron, a salt found in early cast materials. They also point out that no references about molds, buckets or other casting tools exist in early Egyptian paintings, sculptures or texts.

Joseph Davidovits, professor and director of France's Geopolymer Institute, formulated the theory that natural limestone was cast like concrete to build the pyramids of Egypt.

Davidovits told Discovery News that Liritzis and his team "should have taken into account the scientific analysis" conducted by himself and other researchers before backing the carved-not-cast theory.

Robert Temple, co-director of the Project for Historical Dating and a visiting research fellow at universities in America, Egypt and Greece, has also studied Egypt's monuments. He agrees with Davidovits about the casting.

"There is no evidence known that suggests the ancient Egyptians had cranes," he said. "Without cranes, it is difficult to imagine how they could have lifted giant stones, some as heavy as 200 tons."

Temple, however, agrees, "Egyptian pyramid blocks of limestone tend to contain fossil shells and nummulites, often huge quantities of them, many of them intact, and many of them of surprisingly large size."

He added, "Frankly, not many people pay attention to the shells, which I have always thought was a shame. 'Seashells in the Desert'-- a good story."

Egyptian, Libyan groundwater dated million years old
afrol News, 4 March - It was known that the groundwater beneath the sands of Egypt and Libya was of old age, but a new technique has established that it was produced by rains one million years ago. At that time, the Sahara desert still was a fertile and green area.

The Mediterranean Sea was a desert, millions of years ago. In contrast, the Sahara Desert was once a lush, green landscape dotted with lakes and ponds. Evidence of this past verdancy lies hidden beneath the sands of Egypt and Libya, in the form of a huge aquifer of fresh groundwater.

An international team of geologists and physicists has found that this groundwater has been flowing slowly northward - at about the rate grass grows - for the past million years. Their findings have been accepted for March publication in ‘Geophysical Research Letters’, published by the American Geophysical Union.

Determining residence times and flow velocities of groundwater in aquifers is a vexing challenge, according to a news release issued by American Geophysical Union. The extremely rare radioactive isotope krypton-81 with a half-life of 229,000 years “could be an ideal groundwater chronometer on the million-year time scale, but it has been nearly impossible to measure because of its low abundance,” the release says.

The rare isotope is produced by cosmic rays in the atmosphere. There is only one atom of krypton-81 in a trillion atoms of atmospheric krypton, a rare gas to begin with, and krypton is absorbed only slightly by water. This has been used by US and Swiss scientist to determine the age of Egypt’s and Libya’s groundwater.

Recently, scientists at Argonne National Laboratory developed a laser-based method to count individual atoms of krypton-81 and measure its abundance accurately. Known as ATTA, for Atom-Trap Trace Analysis, this new, ultra-sensitive method “could revolutionise the scientific study of such topics as continental groundwater flow, long-term glacier motion, and seawater circulation through the ocean floor,” say the researchers.

In their ‘Geophysical Research Letters’ paper, Neil Sturchio, Zheng-Tian Lu, Roland Purtschert, Mohamed Sultan and others report the most extensive measurements yet made for krypton-81 in groundwater. In the first application of the ATTA method to a groundwater investigation, this team visited the Western Desert of Egypt to sample krypton from the Nubian Aquifer groundwater, which was reputedly old but of unknown age.

To obtain a sufficient amount of krypton for the ATTA measurements, the team had to extract dissolved gases from thousands of litres of groundwater in the field, using a device invented by the Swiss members of the team.

The gas extracted from each well was compressed into steel containers and shipped to Bern (Switzerland), where the trace amount of krypton in each sample was purified and delivered to Argonne for analysis of krypton-81. ATTA measured the ratios of krypton-81 to ordinary krypton, which ranged from about five to 53 percent of that in the air, corresponding to groundwater ages of 200,000 to 1,000,000 years.

- Based on these data, it is possible to estimate the direction and velocity of the groundwater flow, which is about one-to-two meters per year toward the north, and to determine the recharge location in southwest Egypt, the scientists conclude.

According to the study, this confirms results from some previous numerical hydrologic models, but refutes others. Isotopic characteristics of the water itself indicate that it was transported by air masses travelling long distances over North Africa from the Atlantic Ocean, thus reflecting climate conditions much different from the present during the past million years.

The transport of Atlantic air into North Africa caused what is now the Sahara to be a green and fertile land mass. Changing climate patterns turned this green oasis into today’s desert.

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