The doctrine of "implied powers", which was understood at the time the Constitution was debated and eventually ratified, means that the national government's powers are NOT, as Madison assured readers in Federalist 45, “few and defined”. Rather, they are incomprehensibly vast. As Brutus wondered in Antifederalist 32, “how is it possible to understand the extent of that power which can pass all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying it into executions? It is truly incomprehensible. A case cannot be conceived of, which is not included in this power.” By 1791, the question of implied powers was already...