Posted on 11/19/2019 4:47:50 AM PST by Homer_J_Simpson
Free Republic University, Department of History presents U.S. History, 1855-1860: Seminar and Discussion Forum
Bleeding Kansas, Dred Scott, Lincoln-Douglas, Harper’s Ferry, the election of 1860, secession – all the events leading up to the Civil War, as seen through news reports of the time and later historical accounts
First session: November 21, 2015. Last date to add: Sometime in the future.
Reading: Self-assigned. Recommendations made and welcomed.
Posting history, in reverse order
To add this class to or drop it from your schedule notify Admissions and Records (Attn: Homer_J_Simpson) by reply or freepmail.
CHARLESTOWN, JEFFERSON COUNTY, VA., Nov. 19, 1859.
REV. LUTHER HUMPHREY.
MY DEAR FRIEND, — Your kind letter of the 12th instant is now before me. So far as my knowledge goes as to our mutual kindred, I suppose I am the first since the landing of Peter Brown from the “Mayflower” that has either been sentenced to imprisonment or to the gallows. But, my dear old friend, let not that fact alone grieve you. You cannot have forgotten how and where our grandfather fell in 1776, and that he, too, might have perished on the scaffold had circumstances been but a very little different. The fact that a man dies under the hand of an executioner (or otherwise) has but little to do with his true character, as I suppose. John Rogers perished at the stake, a great and good man, as I suppose; but his doing so does not prove that any other man who has died in the same way was good or otherwise.
Whether I have any reason to “be of good cheer” or not in view of my end, I can assure you that I feel so; and I am totally blinded if I do not really experience that strengthening and consolation yon so faithfully implore in my behalf: the God of our fathers reward your fidelity! I neither feel mortified, degraded, nor in the least ashamed of my imprisonment, my chains, or near prospect of death by hanging. I feel assured “that not one hair shall fall from my head without the will of my Heavenly Father.” I also feel that I have long been endeavoring to hold exactly “such a fast as God has chosen.” (See the passage in Isaiah which you have qnoted.1) No part of my life has been more happily spent than that I have spent here; and I humbly trust that no part has been spent to better purpose. I would not say this boastingly, but thanks be unto God, who giveth us the victory through infinite grace.
I should be sixty years old were I to live to May 9, 1860. I have enjoyed much of life as it is, and have been remarkably prosperous, having early learned to regard the welfare and prosperity of others as my own. I have never, since I can remember, required a great amount of sleep; so that I conclude that I have already enjoyed full an average number of working hours with those who reach their threescore years and ten. I have not yet been driven to the use of glasses, but can see to read and write quite comfortably. But more than that, I have generally enjoyed remarkably good health. I might go on to recount unnumbered and unmerited blessings, among which would be some very severe afflictions, and those the most needed blessings of all. And now, when I think how easily I might be left to spoil all I have done or suffered in the cause of freedom, I hardly dare wish another voyage, even if I had the opportunity.
It is a long time since we met; but we shall come together in our Father's house, I trust. Let us hold fast that we already have, remembering we shall reap in due time if we faint not. .Thanks be unto God, who giveth us the victory through Jesus Christ our Lord. And now, my old, warm-hearted friend, good-by.
* A cousin of John Brown.
1 The reference here is to the familiar text in the fifty-eighth chapter of the prophet, who may be said to have foretold Brown as clearly as he predicted any event in Hebrew history: “Is not this the fast that I have chosen, — to loose the bands of wickedness, to undo the heavy burdens, and to let the oppressed go free, and that ye break every yoke? Is it not to deal thy bread to the hungry, and that thou bring the poor that are cast out to thy house? when thou seest the naked, that thou cover him: and that thou hide not thyself from thine own flesh? . . . Then shalt thou call, and the Lord shall answer; thou shalt cry, and he shall say, Here I am. . . . Thou shalt raise up the foundations of many generations; and thou shalt be called the Repairer of the breach, the Restorer of paths to dwell in."
SOURCES: Franklin B. Sanborn, The Life and Letters of John Brown, p. 594-5
ALEXANDRIA, Seminary of Learning, Nov. 19, 1859.
Since my last I have been out to General Graham's who has a large plantation on Bayou Rapides, nine miles from Alexandria. There met Graham and Whittington,1 and Sherman, Vallas, and St. Ange, professors, to make rules for the new institution after the model of the Virginia Military Institute. We took their regulations, omitted part, altered other and innovated to suit this case, and as a result I have it all to write over and prepare for the printer.
Yesterday I moved my things out and am now in the college building, have taken two rooms in the southwest tower and shall make the large adjoining room the office, so as to be convenient. There are five carpenters employed here and I take my meals with them.
It is only three miles to Alexandria. I walked out yesterday, and in this morning; but Captain Jarreau, who is appointed steward, lent me a horse for the keeping, so that hereafter I will have a horse to ride about the country; but for some days I will have writing enough to do, and afterwards may have to go down to New Orleans to buy furniture, of which the building is absolutely without, being brand new. The weather has been excessively dry here, but yesterday it rained hard and last night it thundered hard. Today was fine clear and bright like Charleston. . .
1 Graham and Whittington were delegated by the supervisors to assist the committee of the faculty in drawing up rules. — Ed.
SOURCES: The article is abstracted in Walter L. Fleming’s, General W.T. Sherman as College President, p. 57-8
In this short essay are summed up the 2000 year-old calumnies and suspicions against the Jews, nurtured and harbored by Europeans, unquestioningly repeated in this magazine, and which seemed to everyone as natural as sunlight, until the inevitable culmination in the 20th century that such thinking can precipitate.
The Diary of George Templeton Strong, Edited by Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas
The Diary of George Templeton Strong, Edited by Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas
CHARLESTOWN, JEFFERSON COUNTY, VA., Nov. 21, 1859.
MY DEAR WIFE, — Your most welcome letter of the 13th instant I got yesterday. I am very glad to learn from yourself that you feel so much resigned to your circumstances, so much confidence in a wise and good Providence, and such composure of mind in the midst of all your deep afflictions. This is just as it should be; and let me still say, “Be of good cheer,” for we shall soon “come out of all our great tribulations;” and very soon, if we trust in him, “God shall wipe away all tears from our eyes.” Soon “we shall be satisfied when we are awake in His likeness.” There is now here a source of much disquietude to me, — namely, the fires which are almost of daily and nightly occurrence in this immediate neighborhood. While I well know that no one of them is the work of our friends, I know at the same time that by more or less of the inhabitants we shall be charged with them, — the same as with the ominous and threatening letters to Governor Wise. In the existing state of public feeling I can easily see a further objection to your coming here at present; but I did not intend saying another word to you on that subject.
Why will you not say to me whether you had any crops mature this season? If so, what ones? Although I may nevermore intermeddle with your worldly affairs, 1 have not yet lost all interest in them. A little history of your success or of your failures I should very much prize; and I would gratify you and other friends some way were it in my power. I am still quite cheerful, and by no means cast down. I “remember that the time is short.” The little trunk and all its contents, so far as I can judge, reached me safe. May God reward all the contributors! I wrote you under cover to our excellent friend Mrs. Spring on the 16th instant. I presume yon have it before now. When you return, it is most likely the lake will not bo open; so you must get your ticket at Troy for Moreau Station or Glens Falls (for Glens Falls, if you can get one), or get one for Vergennes in Vermont, and take your chance of crossing over on the ice to Westport. If you go soon, the route by Glens Falls to Elizabethtown will probably be the best.
I have just learned that our poor Watson lingered until Wednesday about noon of the 19th of October. Oliver died near my side in a few moments after he was shot. Dauphin died the next morning after Oliver and William were killed, — namely, Monday. He died almost instantly; was by my side. William was shot by several persons. Anderson was killed with Dauphin.
Keep this letter to refer to. God Almighty bless and keep you all!
DEAR MRS. SPRING, — I send this to your care, because I am at a loss where it will reach my wife.
SOURCES: Franklin B. Sanborn, The Life and Letters of John Brown, p. 595-6
William T. Sherman to George Mason Graham, November 21, 1859
SEMINARY OF LEARNING, ALEXANDRIA, Nov. 21, 1859.
DEAR GENERAL: . . . The entire article you call Mr. Boyce's1 was written by me rather hastily, and has some typographical errors which I will take the liberty to correct, though I wrote it rather to give Mr. B. the substance of an article from himself, but he inserted it without change, making it rather meagre and curt. Still what we need is publicity as soon as possible. I think all the appointments should be made absolutely and finally by say December 10, that we may know the number of books and articles absolutely requisite by that date. By that time we can know exactly what may be procured here and what of necessity must come from New Orleans.
I will keep a note of my ferriages, which I prefer, as it is unsafe to trust the account of the ferryman. If the Board think I am entitled to my salary from November 1 then I would not ask renumeration, but if all salaries are by law, or propriety, fixed for January 1, then I would ask simply reimbursement of actual outlays, to which end I will keep a note of my expenses.
I have been to see Mr. Manning, Dr. Smith, Mr. Ryan, and Henarie2 several times and will renew my visits and on all proper occasions will touch on the points suggested. If we have, say one hundred at the start it might be well to open with a speech say from Mr. Manning himself, and if Governor Moore could also be present, it would have a good effect and convince these gentlemen that we want the development of as much literary talent as possible.
For my part I am willing that as much time may be given to literary pursuits as the Board of Supervisors may prefer. It will in no wise interfere with the military rule. Only what mathematical studies we do undertake let us make them thorough and not superficial. I have a couple of letters, one from Major Barnard, a very distinguished scholar and major of engineers, written in a very bad hand, which I send with this, for you to decipher if possible. I enclose also for your perusal one from Gilmore and Bragg.
I have had such absolute control of business for some years, that I find myself running off with the bit in my teeth. I ask you as a friend to check me if you see me usurping the province of the directory.
1 Boyce was editor of the Red River American.— Ed.
2 Members of the Board of Supervisors. — Ed.
SOURCES: The article is abstracted in Walter L. Fleming’s, General W.T. Sherman as College President, p. 58-9
CHARLESTOWN, JEFFERSON COUNTY, VA., Nov. 22, 1859.
DEAR SIR, — I have just had my attention called to a seeming conviction between the statement I at first made to Governor Wise and that which 1 made at the time I received my sentence, regarding my intentions respecting the slaves we took about the Ferry. There need be no such confliction, and a few words of explanation will. I think, be quite sufficient. I had given Governor Wise a full and particular account of that; and when called in court to say whether I had anything further to urge, I was taken wholly by surprise, as I did not expect my sentence before the others. In the hurry of the moment I forgot much that I had before intended to say, and did not consider the full bearing of what I then said. I intended to convey this idea, — that it was my object to place the slaves in a condition to defend their liberties, if they would, without any bloodshed; but not that I Intended to run them out of the slave States. I was not aware of any such apparent confliction until my attention was called to it, and I do not suppose that a man in my then circumstances should be superhuman in respect to the exact purport of every word he might utter. What I said to Governor Wise was spoken with all the deliberation I was master of, and was intended for troth; and what I said in court was equally intended for truth, but required a more full explanation than I then gave. Please make such use of this as you think calculated to correct any wrong impressions I may have given.
ANDREW HUNTER, ESQ., Present.
SOURCES: Franklin B. Sanborn, The Life and Letters of John Brown, p. 584
John Brown to His Younger Children, November 22, 1859
CHARLESTOWN, JEFFERSON COUNTY, VA., Nov. 22, 1859.
DEAR CHILDREN, ALL, — I address this letter to you, supposing that your mother is not yet with yon. She has not yet come here, as I have requested her not to do at present, if at all. She may think it best for her not to come at all. She has (or will), I presume, written yon before this. Annie's letter to us both, of the 9th, has but just readied me. I am very glad to get it, and to learn that you are in any measure cheerful. This is the greatest comfort I can have, except that it would be to know that you are all Christians. God in mercy grant you all may be so! That is what yon all will certainly need. When and in what form death may come is but of small moment. I feel just as content to die for God's eternal truth and for suffering humanity on the scaffold as in any other way; and I do not say this from any disposition to “brave it out.” No; I would readily own my wrong were I in the least convinced of it. I have now been confined over a month, with a good opportunity to look the whole thing as “fair in the face” as I am capable of doing; and I now feel it most grateful that I am counted in the least possible degree worthy to suffer for the truth. I want you all to “be of good cheer.” This life is intended as a season of training, chastisement, temptation, affliction, and trial; and the “righteous shall come out of” it all. Oh, my dear children, let me again entreat you all to “forsake the foolish, and live.” What can you possibly lose by such a course? “Godliness with contentment is great gain, having the promise of the life that now is, and of that which is to come.” “Trust in the Lord and do good, so shalt thou dwell in the land; and verily thou shalt be fed.” I have enjoyed life much; why should I complain on leaving it? I want some of you to write mo a little more particularly about all that concerns your welfare. I intend to write you as often as I can. “To God and the word of his grace I commend you all.”
JOHN BROWN.
SOURCES: Franklin B. Sanborn, The Life and Letters of John Brown, p. 596-7
Thomas Wentworth Higginson, November 22,1859
November 22, 1859
I send you two sweet letters from Mrs. Brown and her married daughter, Mrs. Thompson. Money seems to be flowing for them from all directions, and that is something, because, besides their severe bereavements, they greatly need money: though not so totally destitute as many seem to think. I have had some queer letters about them, one from a man in Winchendon offering to adopt one of the daughters and teach her telegraphy.
The whole thing is having a tremendous influence on public sentiment.
SOURCE: Mary Potter Thacher Higginson, Editor, Letters and Journals of Thomas Wentworth Higginson, 1846-1906, p. 87-8
WALTON ON THAMES (ENGLAND), Nov. 23,1859.
MY DEAR SIR: — Very long after the date, — 29 January, 1859, — which you were so kind as to write, together with your honored name, in the blank leaf of the copy of your admirable life of John Quincy Adams, did the volume reach me. It has been in my possession, indeed, but a very few weeks; but I have already read it through carefully once, besides studying many passages of it many times.
I thank you most sincerely for your goodness in presenting me with the book. To have known and venerated its author from my earliest youth, I shall always consider one of the great privileges of my life. I esteem myself still more fortunate in being able to find sympathy with my own political views, and with my own convictions as to the tendency and aspects of the American commonwealth, in one of so large and elevated a mind, and so wide an experience, as yourself. This is an epoch in which, both in Europe and America, the despotic principle seems to be uppermost, in spite of all the struggles of the oppressed to free themselves. . . . .
At home, the battle between the Slave Power in alliance with the Mob Power, and the party which believes in the possibility of a free republic, governed by the laws of reason, and pursuing a path of progress and civilization, is soon I hope to be fought out, without any compromise. The party of despotism is, I trust, at the next Presidential election, to be fairly matched against the party of freedom, and one or the other must go down in the conflict.
I ought to apologize for making this digression from the topic of my letter; but knowing your sentiments on the great subject of liberty, it was impossible for me to say less; nor was it easy, in thinking of John Quincy Adams, the very breath of whose existence was the love of freedom, not to speak of the great object of his pure and illustrious career. I was much struck with a brief analysis which you give, on pages 374, 375, of his view of our government. ‘The Constitution neither of the United States nor of Massachusetts can, without a gross and fraudulent perversion of language, be termed a Democracy. They form a mixed government, compounded not only of the three elements of democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy, but with a fourth added element, confederacy. The Democrats are now the most devoted and most obsequious champions of executive power, — the very life-guard of the commander of the armies and navies of this Union. The name of Democracy was assumed because it was discovered to be very taking among the multitude; yet, after all, it is but the investment of the multitude with absolute power.’ . . . .
It seems to me that human liberty, and its result, human civilization, have not been in so great danger as now for many years. Men have grown so familiar with the ugly face of despotism, both in Europe and America, that they really begin to love it. It is for this reason that — especially at this epoch — your life of Mr. Adams is most welcome. I wish it could be made a text-book in every public school and college in the Free States of America. It is a statue of gold raised by most worthy hands to him who most deserved such an honor.
Allow me to say, that, from a literary point of view, your work seems to me remarkably artistic and satisfactory. The portraiture of the just man, with his solid, unshaken mind, tenacious of his noble purpose in the midst of the “civium prava jubentium,” is a very finished one.
I never had the honor of his personal acquaintance, but I have always felt — without being thoroughly aware of my reasons — that he was among the small band of intellectual, accomplished, virtuous, and patriotic statesmen, not only of our country, but of all countries.
There are always plenty of politicians in the world, but few statesmen; and there are sometimes eloquent patriots who are sadly deficient in culture, and others still more lamentably wanting in still more important endowments. But here was a scholar, — a ripe and rare one; a statesman trained in the school of Washington; a man familiar with foreign courts and laws and tongues; a life-long student, ever feasting on the nectared sweets of divine philosophy, and yet a busy, practical, and most sagacious administrator of political affairs; a ready debater; an impetuous and irresistible orator; and a man so perfect in his integrity that it was as impossible for him to be intimidated, as to be cajoled or bribed. The wonder is, not that such a man should have lost his re-election to the Presidency, but that he ever should by any combination have arrived at it at all.
But this is not a pleasant reflection. Would that he were to be the candidate of the Republicans in 1860. It would almost be a triumph to be defeated under such an indomitable chief.
I must once more thank you most warmly for the noble portrait you have given us of the patriot, philosopher, and statesman; and for yourself pray accept my sincerest wishes for your health and happiness.
Believe me, my dear sir, most respectfully and truly yours,
J. LOTHROP MOTLEY.
SOURCE: Edmund Quincy, Life of Josiah Quincy of Massachusetts, p. 523-5
PHILADELPHIA, November 24, 1859.
I am safely in this beautiful city of brotherly love, and shall be compelled to remain here a week, to close up some old business that has been dangling on my hands for years.
From Galesburg to Wheaton I was in company with Dr. Blanchard. He wished to be kindly remembered to you, and expressed the hope that you would be led at no distant day to change your religious views, though, I believe, he seemed to entertain a faint hope that you was good enough to go to heaven with your present heterodox opinions. He uttered no word of reproach, remonstrance, or persuasion to me, for having no settled religious convictions; so you perceive that in the view of some of our orthodox friends it is a good deal more dangerous to believe too much than not to believe at all. But Dr. Blanchard is an able, honest, ultra, enthusiastic, and somewhat bigoted man — a great friend of ours, and I entertain great respect for him. We also had on board Mr. Lovejoy, member of Congress of Illinois, a talented and agreeable man. From Crestline, Ohio, to this place, I have been in company with Mr. Crittenden and his wife, who are on their way to Washington. Perhaps I have told you that Mrs. Crittenden, though a rather elderly lady, is one of the leaders of the ton in Washington, as she is in Kentucky, and as she used to be in St. Louis, when she was the wife and widow of General Ashley. She is a very kind, amiable lady, but there is so much precision and mock dignity about everything she says and does, that intercourse with her is not so pleasant as it would be if one could only persuade himself that her heart would come gushing out of her mouth once in a while.
SOURCE: William Salter, The Life of James W. Grimes, p. 120-1
The Diary of George Templeton Strong, Edited by Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas
Brian Williams was there and reported it was Mrs. O’Leary’s cow.
I’ll go and stand in the corner now...
5.56m.
The Diary of George Templeton Strong, Edited by Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas
Richmond, Va., November 25, 1859.
To His Excellency, James Buchanan, President of the United States:
Sir — I have information from various quarters, upon which I rely, that a conspiracy, of formidable extent in means and numbers, is formed in Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York and other States, to rescue John Brown and his associates, prisoners at Charlestown, Va. The information is specific enough to be reliable. It convinces me that an attempt will be made to rescue the prisoners, and, if that fails, then to seize citizens of this State as hostages and victims in case of execution. The execution will take place next Friday as certainly as that Virginia can and will enforce her laws. I have been obliged to call out one thousand men, who are now under arms, and, if necessary, shall call out the whole available force of the State to carry into effect the sentence of our laws on the 2d and 16th proximo. Places in Maryland, Ohio and Pennsylvania have been occupied as depots and rendezvous by these desperadoes, unobstructed by guards or otherwise, to invade this State, and we are kept in continual apprehension of outrages from fire and rapine on our borders. I apprise you of these facts in order that you may take steps to preserve peace between the States. I protest that my purpose is peaceful, and that I disclaim all threats when I say, with all the might of meaning, that if another invasion assails this State or its citizens from any quarter, I will pursue the invaders wherever they may go into any territory, and punish them wherever arms can reach them.
I shall send copies of this to the Governors of Maryland, Ohio and Pennsylvania.
With due respect and consideration,
SOURCE: George Edward Reed, Editor, Pennsylvania Archives, Fourth Series, Volume 8, Papers of the Governors, 1858-1871, p. 197-8
Richmond, Va., November 25, 1859.
To His Excellency, the Governor of Pennsylvania:
Dear Sir — I respectfully send to you the information contained in a letter to the President of the United States, [see above – HJS] of which the enclosed is a copy. I submit it to you in the confidence that you will faithfully co-operate with the authorities of this State in preserving the peace of our coterminous borders. Necessity may compel us to pursue invaders of our jurisdiction into yours; if so, you may be assured that it will be done with no disrespect to the sovereignty of your State. But this State expects the confederate duty to be observed, of guarding your territory from becoming dangerous to our peace and safety, by affording places of depot and rendezvous to lawless desperadoes who may seek to make war upon our people.
With the highest respect,
HENRY A. WISE
SOURCE: George Edward Reed, Editor, Pennsylvania Archives, Fourth Series, Volume 8, Papers of the Governors, 1858-1871, p. 197
SEMINARY OF LEARNING, ALEXANDRIA, Nov. 25, 1859.
I am still out here at the Seminary, pushing on the work as fast as possible, but people don't work hard down here. The weather has been warm and springlike, but tonight the wind is piping and betokens rain. This is Friday. I have been writing all week, the regulations, and have been sending off circulars - indeed everything is backward, and it will keep us moving to be ready for cadets January 1. The Board of Supervisors are to meet on Monday, and I will submit to them the regulations and lists of articles indispensably necessary, and I suppose I will be sent to New Orleans to make the purchases.
The planters about Alexandria are rich but the town is a poor concern. Nothing like furniture can be had. Everybody orders from New Orleans. General Graham is at his plantation nine miles from Alexandria and twelve from here. I get a note from him every day urging me to assume all responsibility as he and all the supervisors are busy at their cotton or sugar.
I believe I have fully described the locality and the fact that although the building for the Seminary is in itself very fine, yet it is solitary and alone in the country and in no wise suited for families. Of course I will permit no family to live in the building. There happens to be one house about one-fourth mile to the rear, belonging to one McCoy in New Orleans, but that is rented by Mr. Vallas, the professor of mathematics, who now occupies it with his family, wife and seven children. They are Hungarians and he is an Episcopal Clergyman, but his religion don't hurt him much. He seems a pleasant enough man, fifty years old, fat, easy and comfortable. . . They have an Irishman and wife as servants and have plenty of complaints. The house is leaky and full of holes, so that they can hardly keep a candle burning when the wind is boisterous. Indeed the house was built for summer use and calculated to catch as much wind as possible. The design is to ask the legislature to appropriate for two professors' houses for Vallas and ourselves.
If they appropriate I will have the building and will of course see to their comfort, but I will make no calculations until the amount is settled on. I fear the cost of the building will deter the legislature from appropriating until the institution begins to make friends.
The new governor, Moore, lives near Alexandria and will be highly favorable to liberal appropriation. We have fine springs of pure water all round, and I doubt not the place is very healthy. Indeed there is nothing to make it otherwise unless the long hot summers create disease. I am now comparatively free of my cough and am in about usual condition - have to burn nitre paper occasionally. It is very lonely here indeed. Nobody to talk to but the carpenters and sitting here alone in this great big house away out in the pine wood is not cheerful. . .
SOURCES: The article is abstracted in Walter L. Fleming’s, General W.T. Sherman as College President, p. 60-1
SEMINARY, Nov. 25, 1859.
DEAR GENERAL: Young Mr. Jarreau is now here and says his wagon is near at hand, with a quarter of mutton for Mr. Vallas and myself. As I am staying with “carpenters’ mess,” I thank you for the favor and will see that Mr. Vallas gets the whole with your compliments. Work progresses slow, but sure. I have the regulations done and several other papers ready for the meeting Monday. As time passes, and Mr. Vallas is not certain that he can get one hundred copies of Algebra at New Orleans I have ordered them of the publisher in New York. . .
Please let Mr. St. Ange give you the title of his text books, grammar and dictionary. All other text books, ought to be approved by the Academic Board, but as that can't assemble in time, we must take for granted that these preliminary books are absolutely required in advance. I take it for granted the particular grammar and dictionary can be had in New Orleans. . .
SOURCES: The article is abstracted in Walter L. Fleming’s, General W.T. Sherman as College President, p. 61-2
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